Philosophical Reflections from the Silver Screen: Using Films to Promote Reflection in Pre-Service Teachers
Reflective Practice Vol. 7, No. 4, November 2006, pp. 483–497
Philosophical reflections from the silver screen: using films to promote reflection in pre-service teachers
Charlene Tan*
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore hpctan@nie.edu.sg CharleneTan 0 4 700000November 2006 & Francis Original Article 1462-3943 (print)/1470-1103 ReflectiveFrancis Ltd 10.1080/14623940600987080(online) CREP_A_198609.sgm Taylor andPractice2006
This paper studies the use of four popular films (The Lord of the Rings, Dead Poets Society, The Matrix and The Simpsons) to promote philosophical reflections in pre-service teachers. Based on a study of 25 pre-service teachers in Singapore, the findings show that the teachers’ reflections fall under five main categories: (1) question and modify personal aims, beliefs, assumptions; (2) confront and solve personal and professional obstacles; (3) apply the implications to the local context; (4) consider the students’ specific educational needs, and (5) review and change personal instructional goals, methods and resources. This paper explores how the four films draw out different types of reflection in the teachers, and how the teachers’ reflections based on the films help to prepare them for the teaching profession in Singapore.
Introduction Reflection is recognized as instrumental in preparing pre-service teachers for their teaching career. However, using films to help pre-service teachers reflect on philosophical issues in education is a novel idea. This paper studies the use of four popular films (The Lord of the Rings, Dead Poets Society, The Matrix and The Simpsons) to promote reflection to a class of pre-service teachers in Singapore. A film is a series of moving pictures that has been recorded and made available for viewing. It includes all media productions such as movies, television shows, short video clips and television commercials. Through journal writing, the teachers reflected on key philosophical issues related to teaching and learning. This paper explores how the four films draw out different types of reflections in the teachers, and how the teachers’ reflections based on the films help to prepare them for the teaching profession in terms of their instructional goals, methods and resources.
*National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Nanyang Walk, Singapore 637616. Email: hpctan@nie.edu.sg ISSN 1462-3943 (print)/ISSN 1470-1103 (online)/06/040483–15 © 2006 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/14623940600987080
484 C. Tan Review of literature Reflective practice A number of writers have pointed out the benefits of reflection for teachers (see Kottkamp, 1990; Rudney & Guillaume, 1990; Pultorack, 1993; Leahy & Corcoran, 1996; Risko et al., 2002; Florez, 2003; Pedro, 2005). Based on the writings of various researchers, five main types of reflection have been identified for pre-service teachers: 1. Question and modify personal aims, beliefs, assumptions and actions. 2. Confront and solve personal and professional obstacles. 3. Apply the implications to the local historical, social, political and cultural context. 4. Consider the students’ specific educational needs. 5. Review and change personal instructional goals, methods and resources. The first type of reflection focuses on the teacher’s self-examination of aims, beliefs, assumptions and actions (Pollard & Tann, 1987). This is premised on the belief that the teacher’s own experiences and knowledge are essential to reflection (Schön, 1983, 1987). This process of self-evaluation requires the teacher to be openminded. Dewey (1933) views open-mindedness as the freedom from prejudice, partisanship and other such habits which close the mind, and the willingness to consider multiple or novel ideas. Secondly, the teacher should be able to confront and solve his or her personal and professional obstacles. This is linked to Dewey’s (1933) idea of whole-heartedness which refers to the genuine enthusiasm to channel one’s mental, emotional, and physical resources to resolve a problem. It is essential for teachers to examine, frame and attempt to solve the dilemmas of classroom practice (Zeichner & Liston, 1996). In particular, negative experiences and issues of concern are useful in triggering deliberate and constructive reflection (Boyd & Fales, 1983; Boud at al., 1985; Atkins & Murphy, 1993). The third type of reflection concerns the social, moral and political implications of teaching and learning (Zeichner & Liston, 1987, 1996; Valli, 1993). An awareness of these implications will enable the reflective teacher to modify his or her actions in order to be more effective and skilful in teaching (Fulmer, 1993; Arrendondo et al., 1995). The fourth type of reflection focuses on the unique educational and emotional needs of students (Pollard & Tann, 1987). A reflective teacher is one who modifies his or her skills in response to the students’ needs (Darling-Hammond, 2000). This enables the teachers to thoughtfully examine conditions and attitudes which hinder or promote student achievement. An awareness of the challenges faced by the students will guide the teacher in identifying, analysing and solving the complex problems that characterize classroom thinking (Spalding & Wilson, 2002). Finally a reflective teacher is one who constantly reviews and changes his or her instructional goals, methods and materials. This is associated with Dewey’s (1933) intellectual responsibility, defined as the consideration of the consequences of any proposed plan and the willingness to adopt these consequences (Spalding & Wilson, 2002). Such reflection empowers the teacher to connect the
Philosophical reflections from the silver screen 485 insights gained from the reflective process to changes they are making in the classroom (Farrell, 1998). Using films One effective way to promote reflection in pre-service teachers is to use films as the platform to interest, motivate and stimulate reflection. There are several reasons why films are such powerful tools in promoting reflection, the main reason being that films are narratives propelled by images. Great writers such as Plato (analogy of the cave) Descartes (hypothesis of the malicious demon) and Thomas More (vision of a utopian society) often used vivid pictorial images to introduce, illustrate and stimulate thinking. Falzon (2002) argues that films provide ‘a galaxy of representations of characters, events and situations, in which philosophical ideas, themes and concerns find concrete embodiment, and to which we can turn in order to illuminate and provoke philosophical thinking’ (p. 5). Secondly, the realism in films also offers rich contextualized and authentic cross-cultural information to the viewers (Summerfield, 1993; Summerfield & Lee, 2001; King, 2002). Rather than employing static images (as in a painting or picture book), films piece together the moving images in a coherent manner through a story or plot. By presenting complete communicative situations, viewers can identify with the characters, situations and dilemmas portrayed in the film. This can generate interest and motivation, and lead to successful learning (Longergan, 1994; Guest, 1997). Adding to the above two reasons is the popularity and cultural significance of films; given that movies are accessible and prevalent in today’s culture, an exposition of the film will easily bring out the philosophical meanings to the audience (Porter, 2004; Tan & Crawford, 2006). Boyd and Fale’s (1983) definition of reflective learning is especially relevant to guide the teacher educator in using films to promote reflective practice. They see reflective learning as the process of internally examining an issue of concern, triggered by an experience, which creates and clarifies meaning in terms of self, and which results in a changed conceptual perspective. Films, when appropriately chosen, are ideal in triggering the pre-service teachers to reflect on an issue of concern, ponder on the meanings and implications for themselves, and finally change or modify their values, beliefs and actions. Using reflective journals Journal writing is one of the ways to promote and facilitate reflections after the learners have watched the films. Writing film response journals helps the learners to gain the most from films (Holden, 2000) and facilitates philosophical reasoning (Kent, 1987). A journal combines the objective data of a log with the free flowing personal interpretations and expressions of a diary (Holly, 1989 ). Learners write reflections about what concerns them, excites them, causes them to think or learn (Posner, 1988). Redfern (1995) explains that the process of writing ensures that one’s thoughts and recollections of events are given a certain degree of structure, and such a permanent record of professional practice can be used to gain further insights at a
486 C. Tan later date. Critical thinking is also encouraged as the learner is required to discuss and integrate different ideas in the drawing of coherent conclusions (Wilkinson, 1999). Bringle and Hatcher (1999) suggest that the desired learning objectives need to be formalized and fully articulated prior to initiating any journal activity. This can be achieved with the help of explicit guidelines to guide the learners in their reflective thinking (Norton, 1997).
Method Participants and procedure The sample comprise 25 pre-service teachers who are mostly fresh graduates from the university. They are enrolled in the Postgraduate Diploma in Education and specialize in different subjects such as English Language, literature, history, biology, chemistry and mathematics. All of them have no formal training in philosophy but have signed up for the module entitled ‘Philosophy of education through films’ due to their interest in films and curiosity about philosophy. The module concerned is a six-week, 24-hour module where the pre-service teachers attend tutorials twice a week to watch films and reflect on philosophical issues in education. The module is structured in such a way that the first six tutorials are led by the tutor who introduces various educational issues of concerns to them through six carefully selected films. Each tutorial lasts about two hours beginning with a 30-minute viewing of a film, followed by a short lecture given by the tutor, class activities and discussion. The six films shown to the pre-service teachers are (in order of appearance) (1) The boy who plays on the Buddhas of Bamiyan; (2) The Lord of the Rings: the fellowship of the ring; (3) Dead Poets Society; (4) The Simpsons: ‘When Lisa gets an “A”’; (5) Gandhi; and (6) The Matrix. The first film serves to introduce general issues in education to the pre-service teachers through a documentary about the life of an eight-year-old boy Mir Hussain in post-Taliban Afghanistan. Based on that preliminary study into broad philosophical issues in education, the next five films spotlight on a specific issue of concern. The Lord of the Rings focuses on the individual pursuit of happiness, Dead Poets Society focuses on the nature of teaching, The Simpsons focuses on the nature of morality, Gandhi focuses on the issue of patriotism, and The Matrix focuses on the nature of learning. These films are chosen for their popular appeal, the ability to tease out philosophical concepts in education and provoke reflective thought in the viewers. This is crucial as many pre-service teachers have no prior background in philosophy, and therefore need a medium they are familiar with to trigger their reflections. It is also noteworthy that only two films (Dead Poets Society and The Simpsons) are set in the school context. The other three films comprise a fantasy story (The Lord of the Rings), a science-thriller (The Matrix), and a historical account (Gandhi). This wide selection of films is deliberate as the different genres and settings can provoke more reflections for the pre-service teachers. Each film is accompanied by prescribed readings expounding key philosophical issues. The next six tutorials are for the pre-service teachers (who work in small groups) to take turns to present a film of their choice and
Philosophical reflections from the silver screen 487 demonstrate how they could use that film to teach selected philosophical ideas to their students in schools. After the film-viewing, the pre-service teachers have to write two reflective journal entries based on any two of the five films: The Lord of the Rings, Dead Poets Society, The Simpsons, Gandhi and The Matrix. Two specific questions are given to guide the pre-service teachers in their journal writing. The two journal entries comprise 40% of their final grade for the module. They are asked to (a) reflect on and share any one lesson that they have learnt from the film; and (b) explain how that lesson helps them to be better teachers. To ensure that the pre-service teachers can accurately remember what they have watched and learnt from the film, they are given one week to complete each journal entry. The short duration is important as it ensures that the learners are able to recount the event accurately (Redfern, 1995). The study is guided by two research questions: 1. How do the films promote reflection in the pre-service teachers based on the five types of reflection? 2. How do the pre-service teachers’ reflections help to prepare them for the teaching profession in terms of their instructional goals, methods and resources? Findings Fifty journal entries were submitted at the end of six weeks. Table A1 (refer to the Appendix) shows that there is a fair distribution of journal entries written for all the films except for Gandhi (two journal entries). A plausible reason could be that the pre-service teachers were restricted to writing only two journal entries based on any two films, and they had found the other films and corresponding topics more interesting. As the sample size is too small for the film Gandhi, the study focuses only on the other four films. Table A2 (refer to the Appendix) shows the breakdown of the types of reflection presented in the teachers’ journal entries. Two observations can be made. First, the pre-service teachers score the highest or second highest for (5): Review and change personal instructional goals, methods and resources. This is not surprising, considering that this is in response to the explicit guidelines for journal writing. As mentioned earlier, the pre-service teachers were asked to (a) reflect on and share one lesson that they have learnt, and (b) explain how that lesson helps them to be better teachers. The second question is included so as to direct the preservice teachers to make a conscious effort to reflect on and apply what they have learned as beginning teachers. The second observation is that different films emphasize different types of reflection. For The Lord of the Rings, the highest score is (1): Question and modify personal aims, beliefs, assumptions and actions. For Dead Poets Society, the second highest score is (3): Apply the implications to the local context. For The Simpsons, the second highest score is (2): Confront and solve personal and professional obstacles. And finally for The Matrix, the second highest score is (4): Consider the students’ specific educational needs. It will be instructive to take a closer look at each film and the corresponding
488 C. Tan issue of concern, and examine how they serve to guide the pre-service teachers in focusing on different types of reflection. It is also pertinent to understand how the preservice teachers’ reflections as seen in their journal entries prepare them for the teaching profession in terms of their instructional goals, methods, and resources. Discussion and implications The Lord of the Rings and happiness In The Lord of the Rings: fellowship of the ring, a young Hobbit Frodo Baggins was tasked to take the ‘one ring’ across Middle-earth to Mount Doom and destroy it forever. Accompanied by his Hobbit friends and others, Frodo had to stop Sauron, the Dark Lord of Mordor, from possessing the ring which would allow him to rule Middle-earth and bring about evil upon all. Only the first 30 minutes was selected for viewing which focused on the life of the Hobbits. The issue of concern here is the individual pursuit of happiness. The objective is to prompt the pre-service teachers to reflect on their own state of happiness or the lack of it; this is important as one has to be a happy person before one can be a happy teacher who educates happy students. After the viewing, the teachers were introduced to the six keys to happiness from Tolkien’s portrayal of the Hobbits: delight in simple things (e.g., the film shows 144 Hobbits eating, feasting and having fun); make light of your troubles (e.g., Bilbo has a sense of humour); get personal (e.g., Frodo and Gandalf share a close friendship); cultivate good character (e.g., the Hobbits lovingly cheer for Bilbo, Bilbo humbly accepts Gandalf’s advice to leave the ring behind); cherish and create beauty (e.g., the Hobbits enjoy the woods, fields and rivers in Shire); and rediscover wonder (e.g., the Hobbits look at Gandalf’s cart with wonder and excitement) (Bassham, 2003). The discussion on happiness was given a further philosophical dimension with Aristotle’s idea of happiness (Reeve, 1998). The focus on the pre-service teachers’ personal pursuit of happiness challenges them to question and modify their personal aims, beliefs, assumptions and actions. An analysis of the pre-service teachers’ journal entries reveals two broad themes. The first is the realization that happiness is not derived from material gains as commonly assumed. For example, one pre-service teacher writes: ‘I did learn something from this lesson, and that is to comprehend the old saying that “Money cannot buy happiness”’. Secondly, the pre-service teachers desire to be happy by learning from the Hobbits and appreciating simple things in life. One writes:
The discussion on the characteristics of the Hobbits that follows after the short viewing of the movie was an eye-opener. It brings many great insights as to how simple it could be for a person to achieve their [sic] dreams for happiness.
The pre-service teachers also identify the specific keys to happiness that they want to work on, such as getting personal, cultivating good character, and making light of their troubles. Many pre-service teachers also reflect on how the films and philosophical ideas learnt help to prepare them to teach in terms of the instructional goals, methods and materials. The pre-service teachers express the desire to inculcate in
Philosophical reflections from the silver screen 489 their students qualities exhibited by the Hobbits so that their students can be happy in life. A pre-service teacher writes as follows:
This seminar reminded me of the need to educate students about the important things in life. Not good grades, not pursuing degrees after degrees. Rather, the important things in life cannot be bought with money. The development of an upright character, a caring soul, a sacrificial spirit; all these are far greater than any prestigious degree can bring.
In terms of methods and resources, the pre-service teachers are able to suggest practical and thoughtful methods to help their students to be joyful and moral. A number of them mention the need to get personal with the students by getting to know them better. For example, one writes that ‘we can make an effort to take a personal interest in our students and ensure that their learning process and growth as individuals, rather than the results they produce during examinations, is of utmost importance to us’. Others highlight the need to help their students cherish and create nature, and to rediscover wonder. It is noteworthy that a number also mention the importance of being happy teachers so that their example would influence their students positively. One puts it this way:
By being truly happy with what we do everyday (i.e., teach), our enthusiasm would rub off onto our students. This would in turn make them more willing to put in their best in their learning, as well as to make the learning process more enjoyable for them.
The pre-service teachers are able to give a number of relevant and creative suggestions to help their students lead happy and meaning lives. Some examples are encouraging their students to be involved in student-initiatives such as reading to children in a nearby community library and participating in overseas volunteer expeditions. Dead Poets Society and teaching The second film, Dead Poets Society, is about English teacher John Keating and his teaching experience in Welton, an exclusive and traditional school for boys. Through his unconventional teaching methods, he inspired his students to pursue individual passions and make their lives extraordinary. However, his unorthodox ways also incurred the wrath of the conservative school management and parents, and indirectly led to the death of one of his students. The pre-service teachers were shown 30 minutes of the movie where Mr Keating told the students to rip off their textbooks and appreciate poetry for its intrinsic value. This film is ideal in bringing out the philosophical concepts of romanticism and realism. While romanticism emphasizes individuality, originality, imagination, emotional expression, freedom and idealism, realism emphasizes reality, objectivity, detachment, accurate observation and rejection of the impractical and visionary (Baker & Kemper, 2004). The pre-service teachers then discussed Beiser’s (1998) article where he outlines the key features of a romantic education. Essentially such an education views education as the highest good where the individual’s goal is self-realization and self-discovery. Many of the pre-service teachers share about the dilemma they face in wanting to be a Mr Keating on the one hand, and being constrained by societal norms and
490 C. Tan pressures on the other. Others lament about how romantic education will not work in Singapore due to the overarching realist approach to education. One pre-service teacher puts it aptly:
I am convicted that the so-called romantic programme of Bildung, of aesthetic education will not work for our students. The paper chase craze and a hectic working environment in this world class nation will not allow opportunities to make these scholarly discussions and arcane theories come to pass. Realism dominates. Our ability-driven education is serious business, constituting meritocracy and pragmatism to breed the very best.
The pre-service teachers also draw parallels between the characters in the film and the different stakeholders of education in Singapore: the school leaders, parents, teachers, students and the Ministry of Education. Referring to the sad ending of Mr Keating who fails to get the support of the school administration, the teachers comment on how they may face a similar plight. One writes: ‘In the local context, a teacher can dare to be different but the school senior staff may be unable to accept the changes so readily. This might lead to “condemnation” or the teacher being ostracized’. A number also see the similarity between Neil’s strict and ambitious father Mr Perry, and the typical parent in Singapore. One explains:
… the ‘love–hate’ relationship between Mr Perry and Neil does depict Asian parenting communications where the father plays authority figure … Mr Perry does mimic kiasu [a colloquial word for competitive] parents who are desperate to render ephemeral success for their sons and daughters in competitive Singapore.
And as much as the pre-service teachers admire Mr Keating, they doubt that they can be such a one in reality due to the heavy workload teachers in Singapore schools face. They also highlight the result-oriented and exam-driven view espoused by many students in Singapore. One writes:
With so many of our students caught up in the paper chase, many argue that they do not have the time nor energy to develop their passions. In fact, more claim that they do not know where their passions lie.
However, such concerns are balanced by their awareness that things may be changing for the better as the Ministry of Education in Singapore has been introducing more creative and student-centred teaching approaches to schools in recent years (see Tan, 2005, 2006). The gloomy albeit realistic sentiments expressed by the pre-service teachers in their reflections, however, do not mean that the pre-service teachers feel defeated in their aspiration to teach like Mr Keating. In their reflections on reviewing and changing their personal instructional goals, methods and resources, many of them share that all is not lost. The key is not to change the prevalent utilitarian mindset about education, but to strike an equilibrium between pragmatism and romanticism. Critical reflection is seen when one pre-service teacher asserts that ‘realism and romanticism need not be opposite … balancing their education with both the arts and the science is the path for moulding a rounded student’. A number also point out the danger of excessive romanticism. This danger is alluded to in the film when Neil, driven by a new-found desire to pursue his passion and yet stifled by his overbearing father, commits suicide
Philosophical reflections from the silver screen 491 at the end. The pre-service teachers reflect on the need to monitor their students while encouraging them to be creative. One writes:
What I have learnt from the film is the importance of creativity in the classroom, and that such creativity has to be kept within safe limits. … within safe limits of the school organization and not pose any threat to the order of the established system.
The Simpsons and morality This episode of The Simpsons, a television cartoon series, highlights the issue of ethics to the pre-service teachers. The episode (25 minutes), ‘When Lisa gets an “A”’ is about Lisa, who cheated on a test. As a result of scoring A+++, her school was entitled to the state grant which would benefit the school. But a guilt-stricken Lisa confessed to her principal and insisted that the school should not take the money. However, the principal, school superintendent and practically the whole school conspired to keep the money while keeping Lisa in the dark. Through the conflict between Lisa and her school, the pre-service teachers were introduced to the philosophical concepts of Kantianism (epitomized by Lisa) and utilitarianism (epitomized by the superintendent). Kantianism is the belief that one should always acts out of duty and do the right thing regardless of consequences (e.g., Lisa: ‘But what I did was wrong. … But we cannot accept the money; we cheated … What’s even more important is the truth’). A Kantian’s morality arises out of personal reflection, not external factors; such a person faces the conflict between personal desires and a sense of moral duty (Lawler, 2001). On the other hand, a utilitarian believes that happiness is the greatest and most obvious human good. Such a person acts to achieve the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. In other words, the determining factor is the ends or the likely consequences of one’s actions (e.g., the superintendent: ‘Look around, Lisa, the grant money can do a lot of good … for the good of your classmates and your school’). The pre-service teachers were introduced to the moral education programme in Singapore which is utilitarian in approach (Tan, 1984; Chew, 1988). They then discussed whether they were Kantians or utilitarians, and how they could teach moral values in the classroom. The pre-service teachers’ reflections are based on their awareness that it is extremely challenging to teach moral values to students today. They reflect on the various obstacles which impede the effective transmission of moral values to the young. A number point to the moral relativism in a post-modern world. Others attribute the obstacle to the negative perception of moral education programme in schools. One writes: ‘I feel that moral education in Singapore has always been lacking. … Moral education was no more than a social history lesson without any real philosophical substance or activity’. Another pre-service teacher is more critical and opines that ‘pseudo-Confucian “Asian” values are taught in a series of lessons that are more often than not seen as attempts at propaganda and groupthink’. The pre-service teachers also note the lack of enthusiasm on the part of the teachers and parents. Identifying with the struggles that teachers in schools face, one teacher writes: ‘Now as teachers, we most often than not usurp the curriculum time for moral education to make up for the time we lost for more important matters of education such as mathematics and other sciences’. But
492 C. Tan the cognisance of these challenges to the effective teaching of moral values is accompanied by the pre-service teachers’ own suggestions on how to overcome or alleviate them. Many of them point to the need for the teacher to be sure of his or her moral values, and to serve as a role-model for the students. While the teaching of moral values is necessary, they realize that moral values have to be ‘caught’ rather than ‘taught’ explicitly. One puts it this way:
I need to be sure myself what I stand for morally. … For impressionable minds, it may be that sincerity and way I live my life that will influence them on the correct path, more effectively than any dry lecture on values could.
Others aim at helping their students internalize the moral values, rather than imposing the values on them. The pre-service teachers propose a number of creative methods to promote moral reasoning and make moral education relevant, interesting and meaningful for their students. Their suggestions include openly discussing controversial moral issues with the students, introducing the theories of Kantianism and utilitarianism to them, highlighting moral decision making, using films such as The Simpsons and other pop culture platforms, and using newspaper cuttings to discuss contemporary moral issues with the students. The Matrix and learning The Matrix is a film about epistemology—the theory of knowledge. It is a sciencefiction thriller about human beings being controlled by computers. The human beings live in the ‘Matrix’ which is a virtual reality to make them think that they are living in a real world. The 30 minutes showed Neo being pursued by the agents, taking the red pill to search for the truth, breaking free from the Matrix, and learning the truth from Morpheus. The pre-service teachers explored the philosophical concept of scepticism which is the position that we cannot know with certainty that the external world exists. This is exemplified by Morpheus asking Neo: ‘How would you know the difference between the dream world and the real world?’ The discussion on scepticism led to an examination of Descartes’ refutation of it in his Cogito: I think, therefore I am. Descartes argues that when he doubts, he knows that there is a thinking person who doubts. So at least he knows that the self exists. Erion and Smith (2002) aver that the demand for absolute certainty for knowledge is too strict; we only need the normal standard for knowledge in our everyday life. The class further explored the meaning of true learning based on Descartes’ distinction between false education and true education (Garber, 1998). The pre-service teachers discussed how they could promote true education and learning to their students in schools. As the issue of concern is learning, the pre-service teachers’ reflections centre on the students’ specific educational needs. They contrast Neo’s persistent search for truth and knowledge with the perceived passivity and disinterestedness of many students in Singapore. One writes:
The reality is that many of our Singapore students are easily contented with what they see and perceive and many already have problems with the content that is delivered in the
Philosophical reflections from the silver screen 493 classroom and would be most unlikely to contest it to the extent that Neo probes his existence in the film.
Another pre-service teacher thinks that the students in Singapore are more like Cypher in the film:
Just as much as Cypher is willing to return to a world where nothing is questioned and knowledge is accepted without hesitation, many students would prefer to have knowledge given to them in the form of textbooks and notes. Few students would prefer to learn through questioning, and even fewer would dare challenge knowledge that is presented to them by their teachers.
Others infer from Neo’s use of sensory experience and reason that different students have different learning styles. They also opine that it is wrong for teachers to ignore their students’ learning needs by making them blindly memorize formulas without understanding them. Some add that dogmatic teachers who only accept prescribed answers and belittle their students’ attempts not only stifle the students’ creativity but demoralize them as well. Guided by the students’ educational needs, the teachers reflect on the kind of learning they want their students to have. Some see their role as Morpheus guiding their students to search for the truth. One writes:
I should teach my students how to search for the truth. Just as what Morpheus puts across to Neo just before he goes to see the Oracle, ‘I can only show you the door … you’ve got to find the truth for yourself’.
Echoing this conviction, others write about the need to help students really understand the concept instead of getting them to merely memorize and regurgitate. They point out that the teacher must realize that education is a guided process and not a simple ‘receive and regurgitate’ process. To promote true learning, they aim to cultivate their students’ intellect and teach them to think for themselves. Interestingly, the pragmatism of the teachers again surfaces when quite a few clarify that being like Mr Keating does not mean that the traditional form of teacher-centred teaching is jettisoned; what is needed is to balance the teacher-centred approach with the studentcentred approach. A typical view is as follows:
There has to be a transmission of facts to the students through the traditional method. This will give students some basis to work on. In the meantime, the mind can be further developed by introducing more high level thinking and analysis skills so as to prepare the students to deal with increasingly complex subject matters.
Other student-centred methods include recognizing their students’ talent, cultivating it by encouraging them to think laterally, encouraging them to question what they learn and not to accept things unquestioningly. Some of the resources cited by the pre-service teachers include the use of poems, songs and movies in teaching. Conclusion This study has shown that the use of four popular films helps to promote reflection in the pre-service teachers. By focusing on different issues of concern, the films guide
494 C. Tan the pre-service teachers to highlight different types of reflection. This in turn prepares them for the teaching profession as they reflect on their instructional goals, methods, and resources. There are many other ways to explore the use of films to encourage philosophical reflections from the viewers. Based on the study, here are some recommendations for educators who would like to use films to promote reflection in their students:
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A variety of films from different genres and settings should be chosen in order to trigger more disparate thoughts and stimulate reflections in the learners. Some examples are drama, documentary, cartoon, science-thriller and comedy. Scaffolding in the form of short lectures given by the tutor, class discussions to clarify doubts and generate broad issues of concerns, and suggested readings should be given where appropriate. The above are particularly useful in the teaching of philosophical concepts which are perceived as abstract and esoteric to the learners. Journal writing is recommended as a useful tool for the learners to respond to the films. However, it has to be accompanied by clear learning objectives and explicit guidelines for the learners. Other modes of reflection such as self-reflection and verbal reflection can be used to replace or supplement written reflection. This is especially helpful for learners who have difficulty with the written language, or prefer oral communication and group interaction.
Teacher educators could take a cue from Morpheus who tells Neo in the film The Matrix: ‘I can only show you the door … you’ve got to find the truth for yourself’. Films, when appropriately chosen and well-incorporated into the curriculum, can be an exciting and powerful ‘door’ to promote reflection in the pre-service teachers, leading them to arrive at the truth, both personally and professionally. Notes on contributor Charlene Tan, Ph.d., is Assistant Professor with the Policy and Leadership Studies Academic Group at the National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. She is co-author of Knowledge and inquiry: an introduction to epistemology (20006, Prentice-Hall) and has published in international journals including Journal of Philosophy of Education, The Curriculum Journal and Language Policy. Her research interests include reflective practice for teachers, critical thinking, teaching using popular culture, and philosophical issues in education. References
Arredondo, D., Brody, J., Zimmerman, D. & Moffett, C. (1995) Pushing the envelope in supervision, Educational Leadership, 53(3), 74–78. Atkins, S. & Murphy, K. (1993) Reflection: a review of the literature, Journal of Advanced Nursing, 18, 1188–1192.
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Baker, K. & Kemper, J. (2004) Discussion of the conflicting philosophies of romanticism and realism in Dead Poets Society. Available online at: www.deliriumsrealm.com/delirium/movies/ dps_philosophy.asp (accessed 15 January 2004). Bassham, G. (2003) Tolkien’s six keys to happiness, in: G. Bassham & E. Bronson (Eds) The Lord of the Rings and philosophy: one book to rule them all (Illinois, Open Court). Beiser, F. C. (1998) A romantic education: the concept of Bildung in early German Romanticism, in: A. O. Rorty (Ed.) Philosophers on education: historical perspectives (London, Routledge). Boud, D., Keogh, R. & Walker, D. (Eds) (1985) Reflection: turning experience into learning (London, Kogan Page). Boyd, E. M. & Fale, A. W. (1983) Reflective learning: key to learning from experience, Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 23(2), 99–117. Bringle, R. G. & Hatcher, J. A. (1999) Reflection in service-learning: making meaning of experience, Educational Horizons, 77, 179–185. Chew, J. (1998) Civics and moral education in Singapore: lessons for citizenship education?, Journal of Moral Education, 27, 505–524. Darling-Hammond, L. (2000) How teacher education matters, Journal of Teacher Education, 51(3), 166–173. Dewey, J. (1933) How we think: a restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process (New York, D. C. Heath & Company). Erion, G. J. & Smith, B. (2002) Skepticism, morality, and The Matrix, in: W. Irwin (Ed.) The Matrix and philosophy (Illionois, Open Court). Farrell, T. (1998) Reflective teaching: the principles and practices, Forum, 36(4), 10–17. Florez, M. C. (2003) Reflective teaching practice in adult ESL settings. Available online at: www.ericdigests.org/2001-4/esl.html (accessed 15 January 2004). Falzon, C. (2002) Philosophy goes to the movies: an introduction to philosophy (London, Routledge). Fulmer, C. (1993) Developing a reflective practice of professional development, School Business Affairs, 59(9), 23–26. Garber, D. (1998) Descartes, or the cultivation of the intellect, in: A. O. Rorty (Ed.) Philosophers on education: historical perspectives (London, Routledge). Guest, M. (1997) Film dynamics in the English language classroom, in: Proceedings of the sixth international symposium on English teaching (Taipei, English Teachers Association), 171–182. Holden, W. (2000) Making the most of movies: keeping film response journals, Modern English Teacher, 9(2), 40–46. Holly, M. L. (1989) Writing to grow (Portsmouth, Heinemann). Kent, O. (1987) Student journals and the goals of philosophy, in: T. Fulwiler (Ed.) The journal book (Portsmouth, Heinemann). King, J. (2002) Using DVD feature films in the ESL classroom, ELT Newsletter. Available online at: www.eltnewletter.com/back/February2002/art882002.htm (accessed 31 May 2005). Kottkamp, R. B. (1990) Means for facilitating reflection, Education and Urban Society, 22(2), 182–203. Lawler, J. (2001) The moral world of the Simpson family: a Kantian perspective, in: W. Irwin, M. T. Conrad & A. J. Skoble (Eds) The Simpsons and philosophy: the d’oh! of Homer (Illionois, Open Court). Leahy, R. & Corcoran, C. A. (1996) Encouraging reflective practitioners: connecting classroom to fieldwork, Journal of Research and Development in Education, 29(2), 104–114. Lonergan, J. (1994) Video in language teaching (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press). Norton, J. N. (1997) Locus of control and reflective thinking in preservice teachers, Education, Spring. Available online at: www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3673/is_199704/ai_n 8769753 (accessed 31 May 2005). Pedro, J. Y. (2005) Reflection in teacher education: exploring pre-service teachers’ meanings of reflective practice, Reflective Practice, 6(1), 49–66.
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Pollard, A. & Tann, S. (1987) Reflective teaching in the primary school: a handbook for the classroom (London, Cassell). Porter, B. F. (2004) Philosophy through fiction and film (New Jersey, Prentice Hall). Posner, G. J. (1988) Field experience: methods of reflective teaching (New York, Longman). Pultorak, L. (1993) Facilitating reflective thought in novice teachers, Journal of Teacher Education, 44, 288–295. Redfern, E. (1995) Profiles, portfolios and reflective practice. Part 2, Professional Update, 3, p. 10. Reeve, C. D. C. (1998) Aristotelian education, in: A. O. Rorty (Ed.) Philosophers on education: historical perspectives (London, Routledge). Risko, V. J., Vukelich, C. & Roskos, K. (2002) Preparing teachers for reflective practice: intentions, contradictions, and possibilities, Language Arts, 80(2), 134–144. Rudney, G. & Guillaume, A. (1990) Reflective teaching for student teachers, The Teacher Educator, 25(3), 13–20. Schön, D. A. (1983) The reflective practitioner: how professionals think in action (New York, Basic Books) Schön, D. A. (1987) Educating the reflective practitioner: towards a new design of teaching and learning in the professions (San Francisco, Jossey-Bass). Spalding, E. & Wilson, A. (2002) Demystifying reflection: a study of pedagogical strategies that encourage reflective journal writing, Teachers College Record, 104, 1393–1421. Summerfield, E. & Lee, S. (2001) Seeing the big picture. Exploring American cultures on film (Yarmouth, Intercultural Press). Summerfield, E. (1993) Crossing cultures through film (Yarmough, Intercultural Press). Tan, C. (2005) Driven by pragmatisim: issues and challenges in an ability-driven education, in: J. Tan & P. T. Ng (Eds) Shaping Singapore’s future: thinking schools, learning nation (Singapore, Prentice-Hall). Tan, C. (2006) Creating thinking schools through ‘knowledge and inquiry’: the curriculum challenges for Singapore, The Curriculum Journal, 17(1), 89–105. Tan, C. & Crawford, L. (2006) Knowledge and inquiry: an introduction to epistemology (Singapore, Prentice-Hall). Tan, T. W. (1994) Moral education in Singapore: a critical appraisal, Journal of Moral Education, 23, 61–73. Valli, L. (1993) Reconsidering technical and reflective concepts in teacher education, Action in Teacher Education, 15(2), 35–44. Wilkinson, J. (1999) Implementing reflective practice, Nursing Standard, 13(21), 36–40. Zeichner, K. & Liston, D. (1987) Teaching student teachers to reflect, Harvard Educational Review, 57, 23–48. Zeichner, K. & Liston, D. (1996) Reflective teaching: an introduction (Mahwah, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates).
Appendix
Table A1. Number of reflective journal entries submitted for the five films Number of reflective journal entry submitted 13 15 11 2 9 50
Topic
The Lord of the Rings and happiness Dead Poets Society and teaching The Simpsons and morality Gandhi and patriotism The Matrix and learning Total
Table A2. Types of reflection corresponding to the four films (5) Review and change personal instructional goals, methods and resources (4) Consider the students’ specific educational needs
Film/topic
(1) Question and modify personal aims, beliefs, assumptions and actions (2) Confront and solve personal and professional obstacles (3) Apply the implications to the local context
Total
The Lord of the Rings and happiness Dead Poets Society and teaching The Simpsons and morality 9 (38%) 9 (22%) 2 (9%) 3 (12%) 3 (13%) 5 (12%) 6 (27%) 3 (12%)
Philosophical reflections from the silver screen 497
The Matrix and learning
2 (8%) 12* (29%) 4 (18%) 4 (15%)
2 (8%) 2 (5%) 1 (5%) 6 (23%)
8 (33%) 13 (32%) 9 (41%) 10 (38%)
24 (100%) 41 (100%) 22 (100%) 26 (100%)
References: Arredondo, D., Brody, J., Zimmerman, D. & Moffett, C. (1995) Pushing the envelope in supervision, Educational Leadership, 53(3), 74–78. Atkins, S. & Murphy, K. (1993) Reflection: a review of the literature, Journal of Advanced Nursing, 18, 1188–1192.
Philosophical reflections from the silver screen: using films to promote reflection in pre-service teachers
Charlene Tan*
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore hpctan@nie.edu.sg CharleneTan 0 4 700000November 2006 & Francis Original Article 1462-3943 (print)/1470-1103 ReflectiveFrancis Ltd 10.1080/14623940600987080(online) CREP_A_198609.sgm Taylor andPractice2006
This paper studies the use of four popular films (The Lord of the Rings, Dead Poets Society, The Matrix and The Simpsons) to promote philosophical reflections in pre-service teachers. Based on a study of 25 pre-service teachers in Singapore, the findings show that the teachers’ reflections fall under five main categories: (1) question and modify personal aims, beliefs, assumptions; (2) confront and solve personal and professional obstacles; (3) apply the implications to the local context; (4) consider the students’ specific educational needs, and (5) review and change personal instructional goals, methods and resources. This paper explores how the four films draw out different types of reflection in the teachers, and how the teachers’ reflections based on the films help to prepare them for the teaching profession in Singapore.
Introduction Reflection is recognized as instrumental in preparing pre-service teachers for their teaching career. However, using films to help pre-service teachers reflect on philosophical issues in education is a novel idea. This paper studies the use of four popular films (The Lord of the Rings, Dead Poets Society, The Matrix and The Simpsons) to promote reflection to a class of pre-service teachers in Singapore. A film is a series of moving pictures that has been recorded and made available for viewing. It includes all media productions such as movies, television shows, short video clips and television commercials. Through journal writing, the teachers reflected on key philosophical issues related to teaching and learning. This paper explores how the four films draw out different types of reflections in the teachers, and how the teachers’ reflections based on the films help to prepare them for the teaching profession in terms of their instructional goals, methods and resources.
*National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Nanyang Walk, Singapore 637616. Email: hpctan@nie.edu.sg ISSN 1462-3943 (print)/ISSN 1470-1103 (online)/06/040483–15 © 2006 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/14623940600987080
484 C. Tan Review of literature Reflective practice A number of writers have pointed out the benefits of reflection for teachers (see Kottkamp, 1990; Rudney & Guillaume, 1990; Pultorack, 1993; Leahy & Corcoran, 1996; Risko et al., 2002; Florez, 2003; Pedro, 2005). Based on the writings of various researchers, five main types of reflection have been identified for pre-service teachers: 1. Question and modify personal aims, beliefs, assumptions and actions. 2. Confront and solve personal and professional obstacles. 3. Apply the implications to the local historical, social, political and cultural context. 4. Consider the students’ specific educational needs. 5. Review and change personal instructional goals, methods and resources. The first type of reflection focuses on the teacher’s self-examination of aims, beliefs, assumptions and actions (Pollard & Tann, 1987). This is premised on the belief that the teacher’s own experiences and knowledge are essential to reflection (Schön, 1983, 1987). This process of self-evaluation requires the teacher to be openminded. Dewey (1933) views open-mindedness as the freedom from prejudice, partisanship and other such habits which close the mind, and the willingness to consider multiple or novel ideas. Secondly, the teacher should be able to confront and solve his or her personal and professional obstacles. This is linked to Dewey’s (1933) idea of whole-heartedness which refers to the genuine enthusiasm to channel one’s mental, emotional, and physical resources to resolve a problem. It is essential for teachers to examine, frame and attempt to solve the dilemmas of classroom practice (Zeichner & Liston, 1996). In particular, negative experiences and issues of concern are useful in triggering deliberate and constructive reflection (Boyd & Fales, 1983; Boud at al., 1985; Atkins & Murphy, 1993). The third type of reflection concerns the social, moral and political implications of teaching and learning (Zeichner & Liston, 1987, 1996; Valli, 1993). An awareness of these implications will enable the reflective teacher to modify his or her actions in order to be more effective and skilful in teaching (Fulmer, 1993; Arrendondo et al., 1995). The fourth type of reflection focuses on the unique educational and emotional needs of students (Pollard & Tann, 1987). A reflective teacher is one who modifies his or her skills in response to the students’ needs (Darling-Hammond, 2000). This enables the teachers to thoughtfully examine conditions and attitudes which hinder or promote student achievement. An awareness of the challenges faced by the students will guide the teacher in identifying, analysing and solving the complex problems that characterize classroom thinking (Spalding & Wilson, 2002). Finally a reflective teacher is one who constantly reviews and changes his or her instructional goals, methods and materials. This is associated with Dewey’s (1933) intellectual responsibility, defined as the consideration of the consequences of any proposed plan and the willingness to adopt these consequences (Spalding & Wilson, 2002). Such reflection empowers the teacher to connect the
Philosophical reflections from the silver screen 485 insights gained from the reflective process to changes they are making in the classroom (Farrell, 1998). Using films One effective way to promote reflection in pre-service teachers is to use films as the platform to interest, motivate and stimulate reflection. There are several reasons why films are such powerful tools in promoting reflection, the main reason being that films are narratives propelled by images. Great writers such as Plato (analogy of the cave) Descartes (hypothesis of the malicious demon) and Thomas More (vision of a utopian society) often used vivid pictorial images to introduce, illustrate and stimulate thinking. Falzon (2002) argues that films provide ‘a galaxy of representations of characters, events and situations, in which philosophical ideas, themes and concerns find concrete embodiment, and to which we can turn in order to illuminate and provoke philosophical thinking’ (p. 5). Secondly, the realism in films also offers rich contextualized and authentic cross-cultural information to the viewers (Summerfield, 1993; Summerfield & Lee, 2001; King, 2002). Rather than employing static images (as in a painting or picture book), films piece together the moving images in a coherent manner through a story or plot. By presenting complete communicative situations, viewers can identify with the characters, situations and dilemmas portrayed in the film. This can generate interest and motivation, and lead to successful learning (Longergan, 1994; Guest, 1997). Adding to the above two reasons is the popularity and cultural significance of films; given that movies are accessible and prevalent in today’s culture, an exposition of the film will easily bring out the philosophical meanings to the audience (Porter, 2004; Tan & Crawford, 2006). Boyd and Fale’s (1983) definition of reflective learning is especially relevant to guide the teacher educator in using films to promote reflective practice. They see reflective learning as the process of internally examining an issue of concern, triggered by an experience, which creates and clarifies meaning in terms of self, and which results in a changed conceptual perspective. Films, when appropriately chosen, are ideal in triggering the pre-service teachers to reflect on an issue of concern, ponder on the meanings and implications for themselves, and finally change or modify their values, beliefs and actions. Using reflective journals Journal writing is one of the ways to promote and facilitate reflections after the learners have watched the films. Writing film response journals helps the learners to gain the most from films (Holden, 2000) and facilitates philosophical reasoning (Kent, 1987). A journal combines the objective data of a log with the free flowing personal interpretations and expressions of a diary (Holly, 1989 ). Learners write reflections about what concerns them, excites them, causes them to think or learn (Posner, 1988). Redfern (1995) explains that the process of writing ensures that one’s thoughts and recollections of events are given a certain degree of structure, and such a permanent record of professional practice can be used to gain further insights at a
486 C. Tan later date. Critical thinking is also encouraged as the learner is required to discuss and integrate different ideas in the drawing of coherent conclusions (Wilkinson, 1999). Bringle and Hatcher (1999) suggest that the desired learning objectives need to be formalized and fully articulated prior to initiating any journal activity. This can be achieved with the help of explicit guidelines to guide the learners in their reflective thinking (Norton, 1997).
Method Participants and procedure The sample comprise 25 pre-service teachers who are mostly fresh graduates from the university. They are enrolled in the Postgraduate Diploma in Education and specialize in different subjects such as English Language, literature, history, biology, chemistry and mathematics. All of them have no formal training in philosophy but have signed up for the module entitled ‘Philosophy of education through films’ due to their interest in films and curiosity about philosophy. The module concerned is a six-week, 24-hour module where the pre-service teachers attend tutorials twice a week to watch films and reflect on philosophical issues in education. The module is structured in such a way that the first six tutorials are led by the tutor who introduces various educational issues of concerns to them through six carefully selected films. Each tutorial lasts about two hours beginning with a 30-minute viewing of a film, followed by a short lecture given by the tutor, class activities and discussion. The six films shown to the pre-service teachers are (in order of appearance) (1) The boy who plays on the Buddhas of Bamiyan; (2) The Lord of the Rings: the fellowship of the ring; (3) Dead Poets Society; (4) The Simpsons: ‘When Lisa gets an “A”’; (5) Gandhi; and (6) The Matrix. The first film serves to introduce general issues in education to the pre-service teachers through a documentary about the life of an eight-year-old boy Mir Hussain in post-Taliban Afghanistan. Based on that preliminary study into broad philosophical issues in education, the next five films spotlight on a specific issue of concern. The Lord of the Rings focuses on the individual pursuit of happiness, Dead Poets Society focuses on the nature of teaching, The Simpsons focuses on the nature of morality, Gandhi focuses on the issue of patriotism, and The Matrix focuses on the nature of learning. These films are chosen for their popular appeal, the ability to tease out philosophical concepts in education and provoke reflective thought in the viewers. This is crucial as many pre-service teachers have no prior background in philosophy, and therefore need a medium they are familiar with to trigger their reflections. It is also noteworthy that only two films (Dead Poets Society and The Simpsons) are set in the school context. The other three films comprise a fantasy story (The Lord of the Rings), a science-thriller (The Matrix), and a historical account (Gandhi). This wide selection of films is deliberate as the different genres and settings can provoke more reflections for the pre-service teachers. Each film is accompanied by prescribed readings expounding key philosophical issues. The next six tutorials are for the pre-service teachers (who work in small groups) to take turns to present a film of their choice and
Philosophical reflections from the silver screen 487 demonstrate how they could use that film to teach selected philosophical ideas to their students in schools. After the film-viewing, the pre-service teachers have to write two reflective journal entries based on any two of the five films: The Lord of the Rings, Dead Poets Society, The Simpsons, Gandhi and The Matrix. Two specific questions are given to guide the pre-service teachers in their journal writing. The two journal entries comprise 40% of their final grade for the module. They are asked to (a) reflect on and share any one lesson that they have learnt from the film; and (b) explain how that lesson helps them to be better teachers. To ensure that the pre-service teachers can accurately remember what they have watched and learnt from the film, they are given one week to complete each journal entry. The short duration is important as it ensures that the learners are able to recount the event accurately (Redfern, 1995). The study is guided by two research questions: 1. How do the films promote reflection in the pre-service teachers based on the five types of reflection? 2. How do the pre-service teachers’ reflections help to prepare them for the teaching profession in terms of their instructional goals, methods and resources? Findings Fifty journal entries were submitted at the end of six weeks. Table A1 (refer to the Appendix) shows that there is a fair distribution of journal entries written for all the films except for Gandhi (two journal entries). A plausible reason could be that the pre-service teachers were restricted to writing only two journal entries based on any two films, and they had found the other films and corresponding topics more interesting. As the sample size is too small for the film Gandhi, the study focuses only on the other four films. Table A2 (refer to the Appendix) shows the breakdown of the types of reflection presented in the teachers’ journal entries. Two observations can be made. First, the pre-service teachers score the highest or second highest for (5): Review and change personal instructional goals, methods and resources. This is not surprising, considering that this is in response to the explicit guidelines for journal writing. As mentioned earlier, the pre-service teachers were asked to (a) reflect on and share one lesson that they have learnt, and (b) explain how that lesson helps them to be better teachers. The second question is included so as to direct the preservice teachers to make a conscious effort to reflect on and apply what they have learned as beginning teachers. The second observation is that different films emphasize different types of reflection. For The Lord of the Rings, the highest score is (1): Question and modify personal aims, beliefs, assumptions and actions. For Dead Poets Society, the second highest score is (3): Apply the implications to the local context. For The Simpsons, the second highest score is (2): Confront and solve personal and professional obstacles. And finally for The Matrix, the second highest score is (4): Consider the students’ specific educational needs. It will be instructive to take a closer look at each film and the corresponding
488 C. Tan issue of concern, and examine how they serve to guide the pre-service teachers in focusing on different types of reflection. It is also pertinent to understand how the preservice teachers’ reflections as seen in their journal entries prepare them for the teaching profession in terms of their instructional goals, methods, and resources. Discussion and implications The Lord of the Rings and happiness In The Lord of the Rings: fellowship of the ring, a young Hobbit Frodo Baggins was tasked to take the ‘one ring’ across Middle-earth to Mount Doom and destroy it forever. Accompanied by his Hobbit friends and others, Frodo had to stop Sauron, the Dark Lord of Mordor, from possessing the ring which would allow him to rule Middle-earth and bring about evil upon all. Only the first 30 minutes was selected for viewing which focused on the life of the Hobbits. The issue of concern here is the individual pursuit of happiness. The objective is to prompt the pre-service teachers to reflect on their own state of happiness or the lack of it; this is important as one has to be a happy person before one can be a happy teacher who educates happy students. After the viewing, the teachers were introduced to the six keys to happiness from Tolkien’s portrayal of the Hobbits: delight in simple things (e.g., the film shows 144 Hobbits eating, feasting and having fun); make light of your troubles (e.g., Bilbo has a sense of humour); get personal (e.g., Frodo and Gandalf share a close friendship); cultivate good character (e.g., the Hobbits lovingly cheer for Bilbo, Bilbo humbly accepts Gandalf’s advice to leave the ring behind); cherish and create beauty (e.g., the Hobbits enjoy the woods, fields and rivers in Shire); and rediscover wonder (e.g., the Hobbits look at Gandalf’s cart with wonder and excitement) (Bassham, 2003). The discussion on happiness was given a further philosophical dimension with Aristotle’s idea of happiness (Reeve, 1998). The focus on the pre-service teachers’ personal pursuit of happiness challenges them to question and modify their personal aims, beliefs, assumptions and actions. An analysis of the pre-service teachers’ journal entries reveals two broad themes. The first is the realization that happiness is not derived from material gains as commonly assumed. For example, one pre-service teacher writes: ‘I did learn something from this lesson, and that is to comprehend the old saying that “Money cannot buy happiness”’. Secondly, the pre-service teachers desire to be happy by learning from the Hobbits and appreciating simple things in life. One writes:
The discussion on the characteristics of the Hobbits that follows after the short viewing of the movie was an eye-opener. It brings many great insights as to how simple it could be for a person to achieve their [sic] dreams for happiness.
The pre-service teachers also identify the specific keys to happiness that they want to work on, such as getting personal, cultivating good character, and making light of their troubles. Many pre-service teachers also reflect on how the films and philosophical ideas learnt help to prepare them to teach in terms of the instructional goals, methods and materials. The pre-service teachers express the desire to inculcate in
Philosophical reflections from the silver screen 489 their students qualities exhibited by the Hobbits so that their students can be happy in life. A pre-service teacher writes as follows:
This seminar reminded me of the need to educate students about the important things in life. Not good grades, not pursuing degrees after degrees. Rather, the important things in life cannot be bought with money. The development of an upright character, a caring soul, a sacrificial spirit; all these are far greater than any prestigious degree can bring.
In terms of methods and resources, the pre-service teachers are able to suggest practical and thoughtful methods to help their students to be joyful and moral. A number of them mention the need to get personal with the students by getting to know them better. For example, one writes that ‘we can make an effort to take a personal interest in our students and ensure that their learning process and growth as individuals, rather than the results they produce during examinations, is of utmost importance to us’. Others highlight the need to help their students cherish and create nature, and to rediscover wonder. It is noteworthy that a number also mention the importance of being happy teachers so that their example would influence their students positively. One puts it this way:
By being truly happy with what we do everyday (i.e., teach), our enthusiasm would rub off onto our students. This would in turn make them more willing to put in their best in their learning, as well as to make the learning process more enjoyable for them.
The pre-service teachers are able to give a number of relevant and creative suggestions to help their students lead happy and meaning lives. Some examples are encouraging their students to be involved in student-initiatives such as reading to children in a nearby community library and participating in overseas volunteer expeditions. Dead Poets Society and teaching The second film, Dead Poets Society, is about English teacher John Keating and his teaching experience in Welton, an exclusive and traditional school for boys. Through his unconventional teaching methods, he inspired his students to pursue individual passions and make their lives extraordinary. However, his unorthodox ways also incurred the wrath of the conservative school management and parents, and indirectly led to the death of one of his students. The pre-service teachers were shown 30 minutes of the movie where Mr Keating told the students to rip off their textbooks and appreciate poetry for its intrinsic value. This film is ideal in bringing out the philosophical concepts of romanticism and realism. While romanticism emphasizes individuality, originality, imagination, emotional expression, freedom and idealism, realism emphasizes reality, objectivity, detachment, accurate observation and rejection of the impractical and visionary (Baker & Kemper, 2004). The pre-service teachers then discussed Beiser’s (1998) article where he outlines the key features of a romantic education. Essentially such an education views education as the highest good where the individual’s goal is self-realization and self-discovery. Many of the pre-service teachers share about the dilemma they face in wanting to be a Mr Keating on the one hand, and being constrained by societal norms and
490 C. Tan pressures on the other. Others lament about how romantic education will not work in Singapore due to the overarching realist approach to education. One pre-service teacher puts it aptly:
I am convicted that the so-called romantic programme of Bildung, of aesthetic education will not work for our students. The paper chase craze and a hectic working environment in this world class nation will not allow opportunities to make these scholarly discussions and arcane theories come to pass. Realism dominates. Our ability-driven education is serious business, constituting meritocracy and pragmatism to breed the very best.
The pre-service teachers also draw parallels between the characters in the film and the different stakeholders of education in Singapore: the school leaders, parents, teachers, students and the Ministry of Education. Referring to the sad ending of Mr Keating who fails to get the support of the school administration, the teachers comment on how they may face a similar plight. One writes: ‘In the local context, a teacher can dare to be different but the school senior staff may be unable to accept the changes so readily. This might lead to “condemnation” or the teacher being ostracized’. A number also see the similarity between Neil’s strict and ambitious father Mr Perry, and the typical parent in Singapore. One explains:
… the ‘love–hate’ relationship between Mr Perry and Neil does depict Asian parenting communications where the father plays authority figure … Mr Perry does mimic kiasu [a colloquial word for competitive] parents who are desperate to render ephemeral success for their sons and daughters in competitive Singapore.
And as much as the pre-service teachers admire Mr Keating, they doubt that they can be such a one in reality due to the heavy workload teachers in Singapore schools face. They also highlight the result-oriented and exam-driven view espoused by many students in Singapore. One writes:
With so many of our students caught up in the paper chase, many argue that they do not have the time nor energy to develop their passions. In fact, more claim that they do not know where their passions lie.
However, such concerns are balanced by their awareness that things may be changing for the better as the Ministry of Education in Singapore has been introducing more creative and student-centred teaching approaches to schools in recent years (see Tan, 2005, 2006). The gloomy albeit realistic sentiments expressed by the pre-service teachers in their reflections, however, do not mean that the pre-service teachers feel defeated in their aspiration to teach like Mr Keating. In their reflections on reviewing and changing their personal instructional goals, methods and resources, many of them share that all is not lost. The key is not to change the prevalent utilitarian mindset about education, but to strike an equilibrium between pragmatism and romanticism. Critical reflection is seen when one pre-service teacher asserts that ‘realism and romanticism need not be opposite … balancing their education with both the arts and the science is the path for moulding a rounded student’. A number also point out the danger of excessive romanticism. This danger is alluded to in the film when Neil, driven by a new-found desire to pursue his passion and yet stifled by his overbearing father, commits suicide
Philosophical reflections from the silver screen 491 at the end. The pre-service teachers reflect on the need to monitor their students while encouraging them to be creative. One writes:
What I have learnt from the film is the importance of creativity in the classroom, and that such creativity has to be kept within safe limits. … within safe limits of the school organization and not pose any threat to the order of the established system.
The Simpsons and morality This episode of The Simpsons, a television cartoon series, highlights the issue of ethics to the pre-service teachers. The episode (25 minutes), ‘When Lisa gets an “A”’ is about Lisa, who cheated on a test. As a result of scoring A+++, her school was entitled to the state grant which would benefit the school. But a guilt-stricken Lisa confessed to her principal and insisted that the school should not take the money. However, the principal, school superintendent and practically the whole school conspired to keep the money while keeping Lisa in the dark. Through the conflict between Lisa and her school, the pre-service teachers were introduced to the philosophical concepts of Kantianism (epitomized by Lisa) and utilitarianism (epitomized by the superintendent). Kantianism is the belief that one should always acts out of duty and do the right thing regardless of consequences (e.g., Lisa: ‘But what I did was wrong. … But we cannot accept the money; we cheated … What’s even more important is the truth’). A Kantian’s morality arises out of personal reflection, not external factors; such a person faces the conflict between personal desires and a sense of moral duty (Lawler, 2001). On the other hand, a utilitarian believes that happiness is the greatest and most obvious human good. Such a person acts to achieve the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. In other words, the determining factor is the ends or the likely consequences of one’s actions (e.g., the superintendent: ‘Look around, Lisa, the grant money can do a lot of good … for the good of your classmates and your school’). The pre-service teachers were introduced to the moral education programme in Singapore which is utilitarian in approach (Tan, 1984; Chew, 1988). They then discussed whether they were Kantians or utilitarians, and how they could teach moral values in the classroom. The pre-service teachers’ reflections are based on their awareness that it is extremely challenging to teach moral values to students today. They reflect on the various obstacles which impede the effective transmission of moral values to the young. A number point to the moral relativism in a post-modern world. Others attribute the obstacle to the negative perception of moral education programme in schools. One writes: ‘I feel that moral education in Singapore has always been lacking. … Moral education was no more than a social history lesson without any real philosophical substance or activity’. Another pre-service teacher is more critical and opines that ‘pseudo-Confucian “Asian” values are taught in a series of lessons that are more often than not seen as attempts at propaganda and groupthink’. The pre-service teachers also note the lack of enthusiasm on the part of the teachers and parents. Identifying with the struggles that teachers in schools face, one teacher writes: ‘Now as teachers, we most often than not usurp the curriculum time for moral education to make up for the time we lost for more important matters of education such as mathematics and other sciences’. But
492 C. Tan the cognisance of these challenges to the effective teaching of moral values is accompanied by the pre-service teachers’ own suggestions on how to overcome or alleviate them. Many of them point to the need for the teacher to be sure of his or her moral values, and to serve as a role-model for the students. While the teaching of moral values is necessary, they realize that moral values have to be ‘caught’ rather than ‘taught’ explicitly. One puts it this way:
I need to be sure myself what I stand for morally. … For impressionable minds, it may be that sincerity and way I live my life that will influence them on the correct path, more effectively than any dry lecture on values could.
Others aim at helping their students internalize the moral values, rather than imposing the values on them. The pre-service teachers propose a number of creative methods to promote moral reasoning and make moral education relevant, interesting and meaningful for their students. Their suggestions include openly discussing controversial moral issues with the students, introducing the theories of Kantianism and utilitarianism to them, highlighting moral decision making, using films such as The Simpsons and other pop culture platforms, and using newspaper cuttings to discuss contemporary moral issues with the students. The Matrix and learning The Matrix is a film about epistemology—the theory of knowledge. It is a sciencefiction thriller about human beings being controlled by computers. The human beings live in the ‘Matrix’ which is a virtual reality to make them think that they are living in a real world. The 30 minutes showed Neo being pursued by the agents, taking the red pill to search for the truth, breaking free from the Matrix, and learning the truth from Morpheus. The pre-service teachers explored the philosophical concept of scepticism which is the position that we cannot know with certainty that the external world exists. This is exemplified by Morpheus asking Neo: ‘How would you know the difference between the dream world and the real world?’ The discussion on scepticism led to an examination of Descartes’ refutation of it in his Cogito: I think, therefore I am. Descartes argues that when he doubts, he knows that there is a thinking person who doubts. So at least he knows that the self exists. Erion and Smith (2002) aver that the demand for absolute certainty for knowledge is too strict; we only need the normal standard for knowledge in our everyday life. The class further explored the meaning of true learning based on Descartes’ distinction between false education and true education (Garber, 1998). The pre-service teachers discussed how they could promote true education and learning to their students in schools. As the issue of concern is learning, the pre-service teachers’ reflections centre on the students’ specific educational needs. They contrast Neo’s persistent search for truth and knowledge with the perceived passivity and disinterestedness of many students in Singapore. One writes:
The reality is that many of our Singapore students are easily contented with what they see and perceive and many already have problems with the content that is delivered in the
Philosophical reflections from the silver screen 493 classroom and would be most unlikely to contest it to the extent that Neo probes his existence in the film.
Another pre-service teacher thinks that the students in Singapore are more like Cypher in the film:
Just as much as Cypher is willing to return to a world where nothing is questioned and knowledge is accepted without hesitation, many students would prefer to have knowledge given to them in the form of textbooks and notes. Few students would prefer to learn through questioning, and even fewer would dare challenge knowledge that is presented to them by their teachers.
Others infer from Neo’s use of sensory experience and reason that different students have different learning styles. They also opine that it is wrong for teachers to ignore their students’ learning needs by making them blindly memorize formulas without understanding them. Some add that dogmatic teachers who only accept prescribed answers and belittle their students’ attempts not only stifle the students’ creativity but demoralize them as well. Guided by the students’ educational needs, the teachers reflect on the kind of learning they want their students to have. Some see their role as Morpheus guiding their students to search for the truth. One writes:
I should teach my students how to search for the truth. Just as what Morpheus puts across to Neo just before he goes to see the Oracle, ‘I can only show you the door … you’ve got to find the truth for yourself’.
Echoing this conviction, others write about the need to help students really understand the concept instead of getting them to merely memorize and regurgitate. They point out that the teacher must realize that education is a guided process and not a simple ‘receive and regurgitate’ process. To promote true learning, they aim to cultivate their students’ intellect and teach them to think for themselves. Interestingly, the pragmatism of the teachers again surfaces when quite a few clarify that being like Mr Keating does not mean that the traditional form of teacher-centred teaching is jettisoned; what is needed is to balance the teacher-centred approach with the studentcentred approach. A typical view is as follows:
There has to be a transmission of facts to the students through the traditional method. This will give students some basis to work on. In the meantime, the mind can be further developed by introducing more high level thinking and analysis skills so as to prepare the students to deal with increasingly complex subject matters.
Other student-centred methods include recognizing their students’ talent, cultivating it by encouraging them to think laterally, encouraging them to question what they learn and not to accept things unquestioningly. Some of the resources cited by the pre-service teachers include the use of poems, songs and movies in teaching. Conclusion This study has shown that the use of four popular films helps to promote reflection in the pre-service teachers. By focusing on different issues of concern, the films guide
494 C. Tan the pre-service teachers to highlight different types of reflection. This in turn prepares them for the teaching profession as they reflect on their instructional goals, methods, and resources. There are many other ways to explore the use of films to encourage philosophical reflections from the viewers. Based on the study, here are some recommendations for educators who would like to use films to promote reflection in their students:
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A variety of films from different genres and settings should be chosen in order to trigger more disparate thoughts and stimulate reflections in the learners. Some examples are drama, documentary, cartoon, science-thriller and comedy. Scaffolding in the form of short lectures given by the tutor, class discussions to clarify doubts and generate broad issues of concerns, and suggested readings should be given where appropriate. The above are particularly useful in the teaching of philosophical concepts which are perceived as abstract and esoteric to the learners. Journal writing is recommended as a useful tool for the learners to respond to the films. However, it has to be accompanied by clear learning objectives and explicit guidelines for the learners. Other modes of reflection such as self-reflection and verbal reflection can be used to replace or supplement written reflection. This is especially helpful for learners who have difficulty with the written language, or prefer oral communication and group interaction.
Teacher educators could take a cue from Morpheus who tells Neo in the film The Matrix: ‘I can only show you the door … you’ve got to find the truth for yourself’. Films, when appropriately chosen and well-incorporated into the curriculum, can be an exciting and powerful ‘door’ to promote reflection in the pre-service teachers, leading them to arrive at the truth, both personally and professionally. Notes on contributor Charlene Tan, Ph.d., is Assistant Professor with the Policy and Leadership Studies Academic Group at the National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. She is co-author of Knowledge and inquiry: an introduction to epistemology (20006, Prentice-Hall) and has published in international journals including Journal of Philosophy of Education, The Curriculum Journal and Language Policy. Her research interests include reflective practice for teachers, critical thinking, teaching using popular culture, and philosophical issues in education. References
Arredondo, D., Brody, J., Zimmerman, D. & Moffett, C. (1995) Pushing the envelope in supervision, Educational Leadership, 53(3), 74–78. Atkins, S. & Murphy, K. (1993) Reflection: a review of the literature, Journal of Advanced Nursing, 18, 1188–1192.
Philosophical reflections from the silver screen 495
Baker, K. & Kemper, J. (2004) Discussion of the conflicting philosophies of romanticism and realism in Dead Poets Society. Available online at: www.deliriumsrealm.com/delirium/movies/ dps_philosophy.asp (accessed 15 January 2004). Bassham, G. (2003) Tolkien’s six keys to happiness, in: G. Bassham & E. Bronson (Eds) The Lord of the Rings and philosophy: one book to rule them all (Illinois, Open Court). Beiser, F. C. (1998) A romantic education: the concept of Bildung in early German Romanticism, in: A. O. Rorty (Ed.) Philosophers on education: historical perspectives (London, Routledge). Boud, D., Keogh, R. & Walker, D. (Eds) (1985) Reflection: turning experience into learning (London, Kogan Page). Boyd, E. M. & Fale, A. W. (1983) Reflective learning: key to learning from experience, Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 23(2), 99–117. Bringle, R. G. & Hatcher, J. A. (1999) Reflection in service-learning: making meaning of experience, Educational Horizons, 77, 179–185. Chew, J. (1998) Civics and moral education in Singapore: lessons for citizenship education?, Journal of Moral Education, 27, 505–524. Darling-Hammond, L. (2000) How teacher education matters, Journal of Teacher Education, 51(3), 166–173. Dewey, J. (1933) How we think: a restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process (New York, D. C. Heath & Company). Erion, G. J. & Smith, B. (2002) Skepticism, morality, and The Matrix, in: W. Irwin (Ed.) The Matrix and philosophy (Illionois, Open Court). Farrell, T. (1998) Reflective teaching: the principles and practices, Forum, 36(4), 10–17. Florez, M. C. (2003) Reflective teaching practice in adult ESL settings. Available online at: www.ericdigests.org/2001-4/esl.html (accessed 15 January 2004). Falzon, C. (2002) Philosophy goes to the movies: an introduction to philosophy (London, Routledge). Fulmer, C. (1993) Developing a reflective practice of professional development, School Business Affairs, 59(9), 23–26. Garber, D. (1998) Descartes, or the cultivation of the intellect, in: A. O. Rorty (Ed.) Philosophers on education: historical perspectives (London, Routledge). Guest, M. (1997) Film dynamics in the English language classroom, in: Proceedings of the sixth international symposium on English teaching (Taipei, English Teachers Association), 171–182. Holden, W. (2000) Making the most of movies: keeping film response journals, Modern English Teacher, 9(2), 40–46. Holly, M. L. (1989) Writing to grow (Portsmouth, Heinemann). Kent, O. (1987) Student journals and the goals of philosophy, in: T. Fulwiler (Ed.) The journal book (Portsmouth, Heinemann). King, J. (2002) Using DVD feature films in the ESL classroom, ELT Newsletter. Available online at: www.eltnewletter.com/back/February2002/art882002.htm (accessed 31 May 2005). Kottkamp, R. B. (1990) Means for facilitating reflection, Education and Urban Society, 22(2), 182–203. Lawler, J. (2001) The moral world of the Simpson family: a Kantian perspective, in: W. Irwin, M. T. Conrad & A. J. Skoble (Eds) The Simpsons and philosophy: the d’oh! of Homer (Illionois, Open Court). Leahy, R. & Corcoran, C. A. (1996) Encouraging reflective practitioners: connecting classroom to fieldwork, Journal of Research and Development in Education, 29(2), 104–114. Lonergan, J. (1994) Video in language teaching (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press). Norton, J. N. (1997) Locus of control and reflective thinking in preservice teachers, Education, Spring. Available online at: www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3673/is_199704/ai_n 8769753 (accessed 31 May 2005). Pedro, J. Y. (2005) Reflection in teacher education: exploring pre-service teachers’ meanings of reflective practice, Reflective Practice, 6(1), 49–66.
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Pollard, A. & Tann, S. (1987) Reflective teaching in the primary school: a handbook for the classroom (London, Cassell). Porter, B. F. (2004) Philosophy through fiction and film (New Jersey, Prentice Hall). Posner, G. J. (1988) Field experience: methods of reflective teaching (New York, Longman). Pultorak, L. (1993) Facilitating reflective thought in novice teachers, Journal of Teacher Education, 44, 288–295. Redfern, E. (1995) Profiles, portfolios and reflective practice. Part 2, Professional Update, 3, p. 10. Reeve, C. D. C. (1998) Aristotelian education, in: A. O. Rorty (Ed.) Philosophers on education: historical perspectives (London, Routledge). Risko, V. J., Vukelich, C. & Roskos, K. (2002) Preparing teachers for reflective practice: intentions, contradictions, and possibilities, Language Arts, 80(2), 134–144. Rudney, G. & Guillaume, A. (1990) Reflective teaching for student teachers, The Teacher Educator, 25(3), 13–20. Schön, D. A. (1983) The reflective practitioner: how professionals think in action (New York, Basic Books) Schön, D. A. (1987) Educating the reflective practitioner: towards a new design of teaching and learning in the professions (San Francisco, Jossey-Bass). Spalding, E. & Wilson, A. (2002) Demystifying reflection: a study of pedagogical strategies that encourage reflective journal writing, Teachers College Record, 104, 1393–1421. Summerfield, E. & Lee, S. (2001) Seeing the big picture. Exploring American cultures on film (Yarmouth, Intercultural Press). Summerfield, E. (1993) Crossing cultures through film (Yarmough, Intercultural Press). Tan, C. (2005) Driven by pragmatisim: issues and challenges in an ability-driven education, in: J. Tan & P. T. Ng (Eds) Shaping Singapore’s future: thinking schools, learning nation (Singapore, Prentice-Hall). Tan, C. (2006) Creating thinking schools through ‘knowledge and inquiry’: the curriculum challenges for Singapore, The Curriculum Journal, 17(1), 89–105. Tan, C. & Crawford, L. (2006) Knowledge and inquiry: an introduction to epistemology (Singapore, Prentice-Hall). Tan, T. W. (1994) Moral education in Singapore: a critical appraisal, Journal of Moral Education, 23, 61–73. Valli, L. (1993) Reconsidering technical and reflective concepts in teacher education, Action in Teacher Education, 15(2), 35–44. Wilkinson, J. (1999) Implementing reflective practice, Nursing Standard, 13(21), 36–40. Zeichner, K. & Liston, D. (1987) Teaching student teachers to reflect, Harvard Educational Review, 57, 23–48. Zeichner, K. & Liston, D. (1996) Reflective teaching: an introduction (Mahwah, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates).
Appendix
Table A1. Number of reflective journal entries submitted for the five films Number of reflective journal entry submitted 13 15 11 2 9 50
Topic
The Lord of the Rings and happiness Dead Poets Society and teaching The Simpsons and morality Gandhi and patriotism The Matrix and learning Total
Table A2. Types of reflection corresponding to the four films (5) Review and change personal instructional goals, methods and resources (4) Consider the students’ specific educational needs
Film/topic
(1) Question and modify personal aims, beliefs, assumptions and actions (2) Confront and solve personal and professional obstacles (3) Apply the implications to the local context
Total
The Lord of the Rings and happiness Dead Poets Society and teaching The Simpsons and morality 9 (38%) 9 (22%) 2 (9%) 3 (12%) 3 (13%) 5 (12%) 6 (27%) 3 (12%)
Philosophical reflections from the silver screen 497
The Matrix and learning
2 (8%) 12* (29%) 4 (18%) 4 (15%)
2 (8%) 2 (5%) 1 (5%) 6 (23%)
8 (33%) 13 (32%) 9 (41%) 10 (38%)
24 (100%) 41 (100%) 22 (100%) 26 (100%)
References: Arredondo, D., Brody, J., Zimmerman, D. & Moffett, C. (1995) Pushing the envelope in supervision, Educational Leadership, 53(3), 74–78. Atkins, S. & Murphy, K. (1993) Reflection: a review of the literature, Journal of Advanced Nursing, 18, 1188–1192.
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