anatomy final study guide

Anatomy study guide
Final 2k14

Endocrine system:
Function: releases hormones, regulates long term metabolic process and shares some function with the nervous system
Hormones: chemical “messengers” that act on target cells
Hormones:
Growth hormone (GH): they increase cell growth and replication by increasing protein synthesis, interior pituitary
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH): development of follicle (females) stimulation of sperm maturation (males), interior pituitary
Cortisol: accelerate glucose synthesis and glycogen formation, decreases inflammation by suppressing parts of immune system, decreases stress, adrenal gland cortex
Parathyroid hormone (PTH): raises calcium levels in blood, parathyroid gland
Calcitonin (CT): decreases calcium levels in blood, thyroid gland
Insulin: decrease glucose levels in the blood, pancreas
Glucagon: increase blood sugar levels, pancreas
Thyroxine (T4): increase energy utilization, oxygen consumption, growth and development, thyroid
Estrogen: ovaries
Testosterone: testes
Oxytocin (OT): stimulate uterine contractions for delivery of baby and ejection of milk, posterior pituitary
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): prevents dehydration and increase blood volume and blood pressure, posterior pituitary gland
Aldosterone: conserves sodium and water, eliminates potassium, increases blood pressure and blood volume, adrenal gland cortex
Melatonin: regulates circadian rhythms (waking and sleeping cycles), initiates sleep, pineal gland
Glands:
Hypothalamus (releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones)
-thyroid releasing hormone TRH
-gonadatropin releasing hormones GnRH
-corticotrophic releasing hormone CRH
-growth releasing hormone GH
-prolactin inhibiting hormone PIC
Pituitary gland (ANTERIOR)
-thyroid stimulating hormones TSH
-follicle stimulating hormone FSH
-adrenocorticotrophic hormone ACTH
Pituitary gland (POSTERIOR)
-oxytocin OT
-antidiuretic hormone ADH
Thyroid
-triiodothyronine T3
-thyroxine T4
-calcitonin CT
Parathyroid gland
-parathyroid PTH
Thymus
-thymosin (immune system)
Adrenal gland
1. Medulla (middle): epinephrine (E)
2. Cortex (outer): aldosterone, glucocorticoids, cortisol
Pancreas
-insulin
-glucagon
Ovaries
-estrogen
-progesterone
Testes
-testosterone
-androgen
Pineal gland:
-melatonin
Non steroid hormones: water soluble -> cant enter cell
Steroid hormones: lipid soluble (fat) -> can enter cell

Digestive System:
Mechanical digestion: chewing and churning, mouth and stomach
Chemical digestion: enzymes (change food into forms that cell membranes can absorb), oral cavity, stomach, jejunum
Alimentary canal:
1. Mouth (oral cavity)
-sensory analysis
-mechanical digestion
-lubrication
-chemical digestion (some)
2. Pharynx: passageway for solid food, liquid and air
3. Esophagus: moistens and lubricates food
4. Stomach
-stores ingested food
-mechanical breakdown of food
-chemical digestion by acids and enzymes
-helps in vitamin b12 absorption
5. Small intestine: plays key roles in digestion and absorption of nutrients
-duodenum: mixing bowl that receives chime from the stomach and digestive secretions from the pancreas, liver and gall bladder, neutralizes acids
-duodenal ampulla: receives secretions from common bile duct and pancreatic ducts
-jejumum: majority of chemical digestion and nutrient absorption occurs here
-illium (ileocecal sphincter): valve that controls the flow of material into the cecum
6. Large intestine: reabsorbs- water, bile, salts, vitamins and organic wastes, compactions of intestinal contents into feses, secrets mucus, and storage of fecal material prior to pooping
-cecum -> ascending colon -> transverse colon -> descending colon -> sigmoid -> rectum
1. cecum: receives material arriving from the illium, stores materials and begins compactions
2. colon: largest part, has haustra (pouches), it prepares fecal material for removal
7. Rectum: anal canal, expandable for temporary storage of feces
8. Anus
Accessory organs:
1. pancreas- releases enzymes, hormones and buffers through a duct called the duct of wirsung into the duodenal ampulla
2. liver- the largest visceral organ, produces bile and regulates composition of circulating blood
3. bile- “cut up” fat droplets, neutralizes acid
4. gall bladder and bile ducts- located posterior right lobe of liver, releases stored bile when triggered by CCK
4 layers of digestive tract
1. mucosa
2. sub mucosa
3. muscular
4. serosa
Cracker’s journey
Enters oral cavity
Mechanical digestion and come chemical in the oral cavity
Becomes a bolus
Goes down esophagus (peristalsis)
Enters stomach
1. mechanical digestion (churning) controlled by gastrin
2. chemical digestion (HCl & pepsinogen) controlled by pepsin

Becomes chime
Travels down the duodenum -> illium -> cecum
Enters the cecum thru the ilocecal sphincter, stores materials and begins compaction
Moves (by segmentation) thru ascending colon, transverse colon, and descending colon
Then moves to sigmoid colon
Rectum
Anus
Teeth:
Incisors 8- cut and used to eat a cracker, located in the front
Cuspids 4- fangs, used to tear and used to eat beef jerkey
Bi cuspids 8- flat teeth, used to crush, grind and mash
Molars 12- they are large flat teeth and they do the final grinding
Pancreatic enzymes: released into pancreatic duct into duodenum
1. pancreatic alpha amalase- breaks down carbohydrates
2. pancreatic lipase- breaks down complex lipids
3. nucleases- breaks down nuclaic acids
4. pro enzymes- assist in protein digestion
Brush border enzymes: all break down carbohydrates
1. maltase
2. sucrase
3. lactase simple columnar: makes up the stomach villi: finger like projections that increase surface area for absorption covered with microvilli and contains capillaries and lacteals plicae: permanent folds, increases surface area microvilli: sphincters: opening and closing, allowing certain things in and out absorption: nutrients passes into blood secretion: using enzymes, acids, water buffers to break down food excretion: wastes are removed insulin: regulates absorption of glucose glucagon: regulates release of glucose
HCL: hydrochloric acid, lowers pH, kills micro organisms, activates pepsin
Lipids:
-lingual lipase (under tongue)
-pancreactic lipase (pancreas)
-bile (gall bladder)
Protein:
-pepsin (stomach)
-proteases (pancreas)
-typsin (trypsin)

Urinary system:
Function:
1. filtration of blood plasma -> all blood passes thru kidneys
2. re- absorption of essential substances back into the blood stream
3. secretion of nonessential substances out of the body
Kidney: organs that produce urine
Urinary tract: organs that eliminate urine (ureters (2), urinary bladder, urethra)
-ureter: transports urine to the urinary bladder
-urinary bladder: temporarily stores urine prior to elimination
-urethra: conducts urine to exterior, also transports sperm in males
Parts of kidney:
-renal capsule (outer covering)
-cortex (outer layer): receives blood supply
-renal medulla or pyramid (inner layer): tubules in charge ofurine production
-columns
-RENAL PELVIS
-minor calyx
-major calyx
-HELUM
-ureter
-renal artery
-renal vien
**Aorta and renal artery deliver and take away blood reabsorption: of essential substances back into the blood stream, in the renal tubule and wanted material leaves tubule and re-enters blood stream secretion: of non essential substances out of the body, in the renal tubule, un-wated materials enters tubule and exits body in urine filtration: of blood plasma (all blood passes thru the kidney), in the renal capsule (glomerulus) all blood plasma enters in a nephron:
-reabsorption is the process of moving substances from the filtrate back into the blood (in the proximal convoluted tubule, collecting duct and distal convoluted tubule)
-secretion is moving substances from the blood and putting them into the filtrate (distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct)
-filtration from capillaries into the nephron (in renal tubule)
2 types of nephrons:
1. cortical: in cortex only
2. juxtamedullary: dips into medulla urine characteristics: macroscopic -color: light to medium yellow
-turbidity: clear vs. cloudy
-odor: nutty microscopic -RBC (abnormal if present)
-WBC (infection)
-casts: protein capsules produced by kidney
-crystals (ex: kidney stones)
-micro organisms (infection)
-epithelial cells: normal from urinary tract
-cancer cells (abnormal)
**hormones that control water balance

Respiratory system: function: transport air into and out of lungs and remove and filter particles from the air external respiration: exchange of gases between atmosphere and blood internal respiration: exchange of gases between blood and tissues (exchange of co2 and o2) cellular respiration: making energy with oxygen and glucose, oxygen entering tissues to make ATP pulmonary circuit:
-external respiration: lungs -> capillaries
-internal respiration: capillaries -> tissues systemic circuit:
-internal respiration: tissues -> capillaries
-external respiration: capillaries -> lungs pulmonary vs. systemic
-OXYGEN
from atmosphere to lungs from lungs to blood

from blood (capillary) to tissues

-CARBON DIOXIDE from tissues to blood (capillary)

from blood (capillary) to lungs

carbon dioxide exits body

respiratory rate: number of breaths per minute (avg. 12-18) vital capacity: maximum amount of air you can move in and out of your lungs total capacity: vital capacity + residual volume tidal volume: normal breathing, the normal amounts of air exchanged during a normal breath (one single respiratory cycle) avg 500 mL organs of the respiratory tract:
UPPER
Nose
Paranasal sinuses
Pharynx
LOWER
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Bronchioles
Alveolar ducts -> alveolar sacs
Alveoli
Oxygen: gas transport
1. blood plasma (2%)
2. RBCs (98%) as oxyhemoglobin
Forms with the HEME part of oyxhemeoglobin
More oxygen relseased from hemeoglobin when
-low pH
-high carbon dioxide
-high temperature
Carbon dioxide transport
1. blood plasma (7%)
2. RBCs (23%) as Carboaminohemoglobin -> forms with the globin part of hemoglobin
3. Bicarbonate ion (70%)
Cardiovascular system:
All the chambers are not the same size
Atriums are considerably smaller than atriums
Pressure and thickness of walls vary though
DEOXYGINATED BLOOD
From systemic circuit (body) no oxygen
Vena cava (superior and inferior)
Right atrium
Tricuspid valve
Right ventricle
Pulmonary valve
Pulmonary trunk/artery
Lungs
OXYGENATED BLOOD
From pulmonary circuit (LUNGS) with oxygen
Pulmonary vein
Left atrium
Mitral valve
Left ventricle
Aortic valve
Aortic valve/ aorta
Valve
Systole: contraction/ depolarization
Diastole: relaxation/ repolarization
Atrial systole (contraction):
-pressure causes contraction
-forces left and right AV valves to open
-blood enters ventricles (fills remaining 30%)
Atrial diastole (relaxation):
-occurs after blood enters ventricle
-AV valves close
Ventricle systole:
-pressure exceeds arteries
-semilunar valves open
-blood pumped out of ventricles (stroke volume)
Ventricle diastole:
-pressure drops in ventricles
-back flow of blood closes valves
-ventricles relax (begin filling)
Cardiac cycle: period between start of one heartbeat and the beginning of the next
Stroke volume: volume of blood ejected per beat from ventricles
Blood pressure: the force the blood exerts against blood vessels
Pulse: expanding and recoiling of arteries
Contractile cells in myocardium produces contractions
Blood:
Function:
1. transport dissolved gasses
2. regulate pH and ions
3. prevent fluid loss (at injury): clotting
4. defend against pathogens: WBC
5. stabilize body temperature plasma (55%)
-water 90%
-protein 7%
-minerals 1% formed elements (45%)
-erythrocytes (RBC)
-leukocytes (WBC)
-thrombocytes (platelets) hematocrit: determines % of RBC in whole blood plasma: -composition 50-60% blood volume water = 97% plasma proteins = 7% (albumins, globulins, fibrinogen) ions, solutes, proteins, hormones = 1% plasma proteins (all made in liver)
1. albumins: transports fatty acids, steroid/thyroid and some drugs, regulates water movement
2. fibrinogen: largest protein, involved in blood clotting, serum: fluid left after clotting proteins are removed
3. globulins: transports lipids, fat soluble vitamins, ions, types: alpha, betta, and gamma (type of antibodies)
Erythrocytes (Red blood cells)
-RBCC: red blood cell count
-no nuclei, so no DNA
-shape: biconcave disc -> easily move thru arteries
-live 120 days
-function: use hemoglobin to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide and globular proteins will break into amino acids when life span of RBC

Leukocytes (White blood cells)
-granulocytes (contains granules with toxic chemicals)
Neutrophils: most abundant (common), first to attack
Eosinophils: defend against allergies and parasitic worms
Basophils: releases histamines for inflammation and heparin for clotting -agranulocytes(no granules)
Monocyte: largest WBC, called macrophage
Lymphocyte: 2nd most common, fights viruses, T and B cells (antibodies) from lymphatic system
Thrombocytes (Platelets)
-fragment from large cells called megakaryocytes
- platelet membrane is sticky
-stickiness helps reduce blood flow to damaged area
-live 9-12 days
-function: involved in clotting
Hemopoiesis or hematopoiesis: making blood cells (RBC, WBC)
-made in bone marrow (spongy bone)
Blood types: determined by antigen on RBC
A (+, -)
B (+,-)
AB (+,-)Universal reciever
O (+,-)Universal donor
Hemostasis: stopping blood
Blood coagulation (3 phases)
1. vascular phase: blood vessels squeeze (30 min)
2. platelet phase: platelets stick to damaged blood vessels and to each other; form platelet plug; chemcials released causes aggregation
3. coagulation phase: Clotting factors released causes chain reaction to clot blood (prothrombin, thrombin, fibinogen, fibrin)
Lymphatic system:
Functions:
1. fights disease with lymphocytes
2. removes excess fluids and removes dietary fats
3. Distributes hormones, nutrients, and waste products from their tissue to general circulation

Organs in lymphatic system:
-lymph nodules: cluster of packed lymphocytes near openings of the body
-lymph nodes: scattered throughout vessels, filter and purify lymph, contain lymphocytes and macrophages, found in axillary cervical, abdominal, pelvic, inguinal areas
-thymus gland: T lymphocytes mature
-spleen: largest lymph node, turns B lymphocytes in plasma cells
Lymph: fluid draining thru the lymphatic system, similar to plasma and blood, but few proteins
-MOVEMENT OF LYMPH
-smooth muscle in lymphatic trunk, one way valves (no back flow)
-pressure changes from breathing
-skeletal muscle movement
-ORIGIN
-return to the main circulation in the heart for redistribution
Non specific defenses
Innate: first line of defense- species resistance
-not affected by antigens/pathogens
-a species also develops a resistance to a disease that affects other species
Innate: first line of defense- immediate response
-skin and mucus membranes
-physical barrier (skin and hair)
-chemical barrier (mucus)
-cillia
-antibodies
-lysosomes (in saliva, mucus or tears)
Innate: second line of defense
1. inflammation (swelling, redness, pain and heat)
-damaged tissues (histamines release, blood vessels dilate, increased fluid and phagocyte activity)
-limits the spread of invader infection and cleans debris
2. fever
-increased temperature interferes with bacterial growth
-makes cells move faster
-reactions happen faster
-less nutrients available

Antigen: foreign substances that causes an immune response
Pathogen: disease causing agent, each has its own special attack on body
Cell mediated response:
Direct contact (cell to cell)
T cells initiate it
1. antigen enters, macrophages attack antigen
2. macrophage displays antigen markers on its surface
3. T cells are activated (helper and cytotoxic) in lymphatic tissue
4. Helper T cells are activated -> activates other resting T cells, cytotoxic T cells or B cells -> activated and proliferates T cells, B cells and NK cells
5. Cytotoxic T cells (activated) -> secrete toxins to fragment cells, make holes in cell membrane, destroy DNA
Antibody mediated response:
Indirect contact
Use of antibodies produced by B cells
1. Once B cell is activated (by antigen or helper T cell)
2. B cells divide into plasma cells and memory cells
3. Plasma cells secrete antibodies
4. Antibodies remove antigen by: neutralization, agglutination, attracting phagocytes and inflammation
Immunity: resistance to a particular pathogen
Active: antibodies develop after vaccination, previous exposure to antigen, body makes new antibodies
-Involves action of the lymphatic system
-specific to invading agents (antigens)
-triggered by infections and vaccines
-creates cellular memory of the antigens and antibodies to combat
Passive: premade antibodies are received
-receive antibodies from mother to fetus (placenta or milk)
-receive injection with antibodies (gamma globulin)