Study Guide on Anatomy (The Upper Limb)
Chapter 9 The Upper Limb
Upper limb - a multijointed lever that is freely movable on the trunk at the shoulder joint divided into the shoulder, arm, elbow, forearm, wrist, and hand
Breasts – are specialized accessory glands of the skin that secrete milk, present in males and females
- tissue consists of a system of ducts embedded in connective tissue that does not extend beyond the margin of the areola
- at puberty in females, they gradually enlarge and assume their hemispherical shape under the influence of ovarian hormones
- one of the common sites of cancer in women. It is also the site of different types of benign tumors
- may be subject to acute inflammation and abscess formation
Each breast consists of 15 to 20 lobes, which radiate from the nipple. The base of the nipple is surrounded by the areola. The lobes of a breast are separated by fibrous septa that serve as suspensory ligaments.
Areola – at the fifth month of the embryo, it can be recognized as a circular pigmented area of skin around the future nipple
Retromammary space – a space filled by loose connective tissue behind the breasts
Pregnancy In the early months of pregnancy, there is a rapid increase in length and branching in the duct system. The nipple enlarges, and the areola becomes darker and more extensive as a result of increased deposits of melanin pigment in the epidermis. During the second half of pregnancy, the growth process slows. Colostrum – fluid secreted which causes the breasts to enlarge
Absence of ovarian estrogens and progesterone is the reason for the atrophy of breasts.
Breast Examination
1. Ask the patient to undress to the waist. While she is sitting upright, inspect the breasts for symmetry. Some degree of asymmetry is common.
2. Take note for swelling. A swelling can be caused by an underlying tumor, a cyst, or abscess formation.
3. Examine the nipples carefully for retraction.
4. Ask the patient to lie down so that the breasts can
Upper limb - a multijointed lever that is freely movable on the trunk at the shoulder joint divided into the shoulder, arm, elbow, forearm, wrist, and hand
Breasts – are specialized accessory glands of the skin that secrete milk, present in males and females
- tissue consists of a system of ducts embedded in connective tissue that does not extend beyond the margin of the areola
- at puberty in females, they gradually enlarge and assume their hemispherical shape under the influence of ovarian hormones
- one of the common sites of cancer in women. It is also the site of different types of benign tumors
- may be subject to acute inflammation and abscess formation
Each breast consists of 15 to 20 lobes, which radiate from the nipple. The base of the nipple is surrounded by the areola. The lobes of a breast are separated by fibrous septa that serve as suspensory ligaments.
Areola – at the fifth month of the embryo, it can be recognized as a circular pigmented area of skin around the future nipple
Retromammary space – a space filled by loose connective tissue behind the breasts
Pregnancy In the early months of pregnancy, there is a rapid increase in length and branching in the duct system. The nipple enlarges, and the areola becomes darker and more extensive as a result of increased deposits of melanin pigment in the epidermis. During the second half of pregnancy, the growth process slows. Colostrum – fluid secreted which causes the breasts to enlarge
Absence of ovarian estrogens and progesterone is the reason for the atrophy of breasts.
Breast Examination
1. Ask the patient to undress to the waist. While she is sitting upright, inspect the breasts for symmetry. Some degree of asymmetry is common.
2. Take note for swelling. A swelling can be caused by an underlying tumor, a cyst, or abscess formation.
3. Examine the nipples carefully for retraction.
4. Ask the patient to lie down so that the breasts can