Social Cognitive Theory of Gender Development and Differentiation
SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY OF GENDER DEVELOPMENT AND DIFFERENTIATION
Kay Bussey Macquarie University Albert Bandura Stanford University
Abstract Human differentiation on the basis of gender is a fundamental phenomenon that affects virtually every aspect of people’s daily lives. This article presents the social cognitive theory of gender-role development and functioning. It specifies how gender conceptions are constructed from the complex mix of experiences and how they operate in concert with motivational and self-regulatory mechanisms to guide gender-linked conduct throughout the life course. The theory integrates psychological and sociostructural determinants within a unified conceptual structure. In this theoretical perspective, gender conceptions and roles are the product of a broad network of social influences operating interdependently in a variety of societal subsystems. Human evolution provides bodily structures and biological potentialities that permit a range of possibilities rather than dictate a fixed type of gender differentiation. People contribute to their self-development and bring about social changes that define and structure gender relationships through their agentic actions within the interrelated systems of influence.
Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106, 676-713.
1
SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY OF GENDER DEVELOPMENT The present article addresses the psychosocial determinants and mechanisms by which society socializes male and female infants into masculine and feminine adults. Gender development is a fundamental issue because some of the most important aspects of people’s lives, such as the talents they cultivate, the conceptions they hold of themselves and others, the sociostructural opportunities and constraints they encounter, and the social life and occupational paths they pursue are heavily prescribed by societal gender-typing. It is the primary
Kay Bussey Macquarie University Albert Bandura Stanford University
Abstract Human differentiation on the basis of gender is a fundamental phenomenon that affects virtually every aspect of people’s daily lives. This article presents the social cognitive theory of gender-role development and functioning. It specifies how gender conceptions are constructed from the complex mix of experiences and how they operate in concert with motivational and self-regulatory mechanisms to guide gender-linked conduct throughout the life course. The theory integrates psychological and sociostructural determinants within a unified conceptual structure. In this theoretical perspective, gender conceptions and roles are the product of a broad network of social influences operating interdependently in a variety of societal subsystems. Human evolution provides bodily structures and biological potentialities that permit a range of possibilities rather than dictate a fixed type of gender differentiation. People contribute to their self-development and bring about social changes that define and structure gender relationships through their agentic actions within the interrelated systems of influence.
Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106, 676-713.
1
SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY OF GENDER DEVELOPMENT The present article addresses the psychosocial determinants and mechanisms by which society socializes male and female infants into masculine and feminine adults. Gender development is a fundamental issue because some of the most important aspects of people’s lives, such as the talents they cultivate, the conceptions they hold of themselves and others, the sociostructural opportunities and constraints they encounter, and the social life and occupational paths they pursue are heavily prescribed by societal gender-typing. It is the primary
References: Archer, J. (1996). Sex differences in social behavior: Are the social role and evolutionary explanations compatible? American Psychologist, 51, 909-917. Allan, K., & Coltrane, S. (1996). Gender displaying television commercials: A comparative study of television commercials in the 1950s and 1980s. Sex Roles, 35, 185-203. Banaji, M. R. (1993). The psychology of gender: A perspective on perspectives. In A. E. Beall & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The psychology of gender (pp.251-273). New York: Guilford Press. Blakemore, J. E. O. (1998). The influence of gender and parental attitudes on preschool children 's interest in babies: Observations in natural settings. Sex Roles, 38, 73-95. Bleier, R. (1984). Science and gender: A critique of biology and its theories on women. New York: Pergamon Press. Bouchard, T. J., Jr., Lykken, D. T., McGue, M., Segal, N. L., & Tellegen, A. (1990, October 12). Sources of human psychological differences: The Minnesota study of twins reared apart. Science, 250, 223228. Breedlove, S. M. (1994). Sexual differentiation of the human nervous system. Annual Review of Psychology, 45, 389-418. Bryden, M. P. (1988). Does laterality make any difference? Thoughts on the relation between cerebral asymmetry and reading. In D. L. Molfese & S. J. Segalowitz (Eds.), Brain and lateralization in children: Developmental implications (pp.509-525). New York: Guilford Press. Buss, D. M. (1995). Psychological sex differences: Origins through sexual selection. American Psychologist, 50, 164-168. Buss, D. M. (1989). Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12, 1-49. Buss, D. M., & Schmitt, D. P. (1993). Sexual strategies theory: An evolutionary perspective on human mating. Psychological Review, 100, 204-232. Caporael, L. R. (1989). Mechanisms matter: The difference between sociobiology and evolutionary psychology. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12, 17-18. Cornell, D. G. (1997). Post hoc explanation is not prediction. American Psychologist, 52, 1380. Clutton-Brock, T. H., Guinness, F. E., & Albon, S. E. (1982). Red deer: The behavior and ecology of two sexes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Davis, K. (1988). Wives and work: A theory of the sex-role revolution and its consequences. In S. M. Dornbusch & M. H. Strober (Eds.), Feminism, children, and the new families (pp. 67-86). New York: Guilford Press. Dietz, T. L. (1998). An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games: Implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior. Sex Roles, 38, 425-443. Fausto-Sterling, A. (1992). Myths of gender: Biological theories about women and men (2nd ed.). New York: Basic Books. 61 Fausto-Sterling, A. (1997). Beyond difference: A biologist 's perspective. Journal of Social Issues, 53, 233-258. Fausto-Sterling, A., Gowaty, P.A., Zuk, M. (1997). Evolutionary psychology and Darwinian feminism. Feminist Studies, 23, 403-418. Gowaty, P. A. (1997). Feminism and evoluationary biology. New York: Chapman & Hall. Halpern, D. (1992). Sex differences in cognitive abilities (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Harris, J. R. (1995). Where is the child 's environment? A group socialization theory of development. Psychological Review, 102, 458- 489. Hyde, J. S., Fennema, E., & Lamon, S. J. (1990). Gender differences in mathematics performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 139-155. Hyde, J. S., & Linn, M. C. (1988). Gender differences in verbal ability: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 104, 53-69. Jacklin, C. N., DiPietro, J. A., & Maccoby, E. E. (1984). Sex-typing behavior and sex-typing pressure in child-parent interaction. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 13, 413-425. Kang, M-E. (1997). The portrayal of women 's images in magazine advertisements: Goffman 's gender analysis revisited. Sex Roles, 37, 979-997. Katz, P. A. (1996). Raising feminists. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 323-340. Kenrick, D. T., Sadalla, E. K., Groth, G., & Trost, M. R. (1990). Evolution, traits, and the stages of human courtship: Qualifying the parental investment model. Journal of Personality, 58, 97-116. Latour, B., & Strum, S.C. (1986). Human social origins: Oh please, tell us another story. Journal of Social Biological Structure, 9, 169-187. Lindsey, E. W., Mize, J., Pettit, G. S. (1997). Differential play patterns of mothers and fathers of sons and daughters: Implications for children 's gender role development. Sex Roles, 37, 643-662. MacDonald, K., & Parke, R. (1986). Parent-child physical play: The effects of sex and age of children and parents. Sex Roles, 15, 367-378. Milkie, M. A. (1994). Social world approach to cultural studies: Mass media and gender in the adolescent peer group. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 23, 354-380. Mitchell, J. E., Baker, L. A. & Jacklin, C. N. (1989). Masculinity and femininity in twin children: Genetic and environmental factors. Child Development, 60, 1475-1485. Ochman, J. M. (1996). The effects of nongender-role stereotyped, same-sex role models in storybooks on the self-esteem of children in grade three. Sex Roles, 35, 711-735. Plomin, R., Chipuer, H. M., & Neiderhiser, J. M. (1994). Behavioral genetic evidence for the importance of nonshared environment. In E. M. Hetherington, D. Reiss, & Plomin, R. (Eds.), Separate social worlds of siblings: The impact of nonshared environment on development (pp. 1-31). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Plomin, R., & Daniels, D. (1987). Why are children in the same family so different? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 10, 1-60. Rowe, D. C. (1982). Sources of variability in sex-linked personality attributes: A twin study. Developmental Psychology, 18, 431-434. Sanday, P. R. (1997). The socio-cultural context of rape: A cross-cultural study. In L. L. O 'Toole & J. R. Schiffman (Eds.), Gender violence: Interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 52-66). New York: New York University Press. Scarr, S. (1992). Developmental theories for the 1990s: Development and individual differences. Child Development, 63, 1-19. Smuts, B. (1992). Male aggression against women: An evolutionary perspective. Human Nature, 3, 1-44. Smuts, B. (1995). The evolutionary origins of patriarchy. Human Nature, 6, 1-32. Sprecher, S. (1989). The importance to males and females of physical attractiveness, earning potential and expressiveness in initial attraction. Sex Roles, 21, 591-607. Thompson, T. L., & Zerbinos, E. (1997). Television cartoons: Do children notice it 's a boy 's world. Sex Roles, 37, 415-432. Trivers, R. L. (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection. In B. Campbell (Ed.), Sexual selection and the descent of man 1871-1971 (pp. 136-172). Chicago: Aldine. 62 Turner-Bowker, D. M. (1996). Gender stereotyped descriptors in children 's picture books: Does "Curious Jane" exist in the literature? Sex Roles, 35, 461-488. Wright, R. (1994, November 28). The female mind. The New Republic, 34-46. 63