Russian Borrowings

CONTENT

Introduction …………………………………………………………………………3
1 Borrowings as a way of upgrading vocabulary
1.1. The notion, causes and ways of borrowings………………………….............5
1.2. The types of borrowings……………………………………………………….8
1.3. Classification of borrowings according to the borrowed aspect and degree of assimilation…………………………………………………………………………...12
1.4. The borrowing process as the reflection of cultural contacts …………………...14

2 Analysis of Russian borrowings based on the examples from monolingual dictionaries of American and British English.
2.1. Similarities and differences in lexicographic description……………………….19
2.2. Contrasting Dictionary Entries: etymology, spelling, definition and lexical coverage……………………………………………………………………………...21
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………
Bibliography……………………………………………………………………….
Appendix…………………………………………………………………………..

INTRODUCTION
Topicality
The English vocabulary contains an immense number of words of foreign origin. Words that came to English from other languages and constantly used in it as the original are called borrowings. One of the main ways of enlarging and replenishing the lexical system of the language is represented by borrowings. The role of borrowings is different in various languages and it depends on certain conditions of development. The number of borrowed words in English is much higher than in other languages. The English language had many opportunities to borrow words from other languages due to the great history of England that includes various invaders and battles. It is known that thirty percentages of all English words are native. That’s why a lot of linguists consider that the English language doesn’t belong to the group of Germanic languages but to the Romano-Germanic group. It happens very often that a foreign word comes to English and it is borrowed not only with its lexical meaning but also with its grammar form which makes more difficulties for those people who study and speak English. It allows us to speak that the topic of this project is relevant. The issue of Russian borrowings is very important in terms of sociolinguistics and language interaction development [1]. There are a great number of foreign and Kazakh linguists who study and mention Russian loanwords in their works. However, most of them are inclined to think that English has borrowed a very restricted number of such terms. For example, in her article Words in English S. Kemmer mentions only seven words borrowed from Russian. Analyzing Slavonic words in English Alarik Rynell expresses the same opinion and he mentions only eleven words borrowed from Russian. Furthermore, the author draws the conclusion that words from the above-mentioned languages denote exclusively Slavic phenomena. Moreover, Thomas Pyles and John Algeo claim that some Russian borrowings are known in English but they have not been naturalized. Simeon Potter admits that because of the closer contacts with Russia in recent years an augmented use of many old Russian terms is observed. However, the author describes only eighteen words of the Russian origin. Kazakh linguists K. K. Zhubanov, B.H. Hasanov, E. Suleimanova, and D.Akanova have recently begun to investigate the issue of borrowings in English language. Thus, the majority of the authors mention only a few Russian words borrowed into English. Consequently we consider that a borrowing problem is very popular in linguistics and needs to be investigated. Therefore we decided to investigate Russian borrowings on the examples from monolingual dictionaries of American and British English. So the theme of our diploma paper is formulated as “Russian borrowings”. According to the theme the object of our investigation is Russian borrowings. The subject of our study is the process of borrowing Russian words into English. The aim of our research is to present general characteristics of the loan-words in English, to investigate and analyze Russian borrowings on the examples from monolingual dictionaries of American and British English. The objectives of our research are the following: • to study the notion, causes, ways and types of borrowings; • to classify borrowings according to the borrowed aspect and assimilation; • to study the history of russianisms in the English language; • to analyze and find out similarities and differences in lexicographic description; • to contrast dictionary entries. Hypothesis: We suppose that the awareness and knowledge of Russian borrowings will help the speaker to distinguish native words from borrowings, it will be effective and useful in the language study and it is very necessary for linguists. Basis of investigation: theoretical works of linguists, monolingual and online dictionaries of the English Language, Internet and library. The main methods used in this research are the following: review of scientific works on the issue, analysis, comparison and generalization of data, classification, description and observation. The theoretical value of this work lies in the fact that the investigation of Russian borrowings and its linguistic aspects contribute for the further development of sociolinguistics theory, Russian studies etc. The practical value of our diploma paper is in the fact that this work can be used for lectures and practical works, devoted to the language history theme, seminars and scientific conferences. The structure of this project consists of introduction, two chapters, conclusion, bibliography and appendix. In introduction, the scientific apparatus is presented. It includes topicality, theme, object, subject, aim, objectives, hypothesis, basis of investigation, methods of investigation, theoretical and practical values, and the structure of diploma paper. Theoretical part is devoted to the overall characteristics of borrowings, its classification and history. The practical part deals with the usage of Russian borrowings in English and the comparative analysis of Russian loan-words on the examples from monolingual dictionaries of American and British English. The conclusion sums up the main results of our diploma paper. Bibliography contains the list of all sources, which were used in the process of investigation. In appendix additional materials are given.

1 Borrowings as a way of upgrading vocabulary
1.1 The notion, causes and ways of borrowings Borrowing is a process resorting to the word-stock of other languages for words to express new concepts, to further differentiate the existing concepts and to name new objects. A loan word, borrowed word – a word taken over from another language and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the English language [2]. Nowadays borrowing is not very important in the every day life but it is active in the sphere of science. It is common that a lot of terms are often made up of borrowed morphemes in general from classical languages. The most characteristic feature of English is usually said to be its mixed character. Manу linguists consider foreign inf1uence, to be the most important factor in the history of English. This wide-spread viewpoint is supported оn1у bу the evidence of the Еng1ish word-stock, as its grammar and phonetic system аге very stable аnd not easi1y inf1uenced bу other 1anguages. While it is altogether wrong to speak of the mixed character of the language as a whole the composite nature of the Eng1ish vocabulary cannоt bе dеniеd. Whenever two idiolects come into contact, one or both may be modified. In face-to-face communication, either speaker may imitate some feature of other’s speech; when the contact is indirect, as in reading, the influence can of course pass only in one direction. The feature which is imitated is called the model; the idiolect (or language) in which the model occurs, or the speaker of eat idiolect is called the donor; the idiolect which acquires something new in the process is the borrowing idiolect. The process itself is called ‘borrowing’, but this requires some cautions [3]. Does not have to be paid back; the donor makes no sacrifice and does not have to be asked for permission. Indeed, nothing changes hands: the donor goes on speaking as before, and only borrower’s speech is altered [4]. From this definition, we see that the conditions for borrowing are present constantly, as a natural accompaniment of every use of language except genuine soliloquy. In the contact of idiolects A and B, the changes that borrowing will actually occur depend on several factors, one of which is the unlikely, since neither speakers is apt so divergent that the speakers cannot understand each other, borrowings is equally unlikely. Between the two extremes we find the situations in which borrowing is more probably. In practice, these situations can be classed roughly into two types. In one type, the two idiolects share a common core; under these conditions we speak of dialect borrowings. In the other, there is no common core but rather some degree of bilingualism or semi-bilingualism; in this case we speak of language borrowing. The mere contact of idiolects A and B does not guarantee that one will borrow from the other. For borrowing to occur, say from B to A, two conditions must be met: The speaker of A must understand, or think he understands, the particular utterance in idiolect B which contains the model. The speaker of A must have some motive, overt or convert, for the borrowings. The first condition need not detail us long. Our reference must be apparent rather than genuine understanding, because in many known instances there is really some measure of misunderstanding. The second is more difficult. We cannot profit from idle speculation about the psychology of borrowers, but must confine ourselves to such overt evidence as at hand. This may lead much surer of those which we do discern. These are two in numbers: prestige and need-filling. The prestige motive people emulate those whom they admire, in speech-pattern as well as in other respects. Upper-and middle –class Englishmen, in the days after the Norman Conquest, learned French and used French expressions in their English because French was the language of the new rulers of the country [5]. Sometimes the motive is somewhat different: the imitator does not necessarily admire those whom he imitates, but wishes to be identified with them and thus be treated as they are. The results are not distinguishable, and we can leave to psychologists the sorting out of the fine shades of differences. The prestige motive is constantly operative in dialect borrowings; it becomes important in language borrowing only under special conditions. When speakers of two different languages live intermingled in a single region, usually one of the languages is that spoken by that in power: this is the upper or dominant languages, and the other is the lower. Such a state of affairs has most really by peaceful migration. The prestige factor leads to extensive borrowings from the dominant language into the lower. Borrowings in the other direction are much more limited and largely ascribable to the other principle motive. The Need-filling Motive the most obvious other motive for borrowing is to fill a gap in the borrowing idiolect. New dialects, new objects and practices, bring new words into a language. Tea, coffee, tobacco, sugar, cocoa, tomatos have spread all over the world in recent times, along with the objects to which the words refer. Typhoons and monsoons have not spread, but direct or indirect experience with them has. Immigrates to the United States in the last seventy-five years have drawn heavily on English for new words, partly on the prestige basis and partly for need-filling purpose: the two motives must often be mingled, and we cannot always say which was more important in a given instance [6]. In exchange, however, American English has acquired only a spare scattering of need filling loans from the various languages of the immigrants: delicatessen, hamburger, from immigrant German; chili con carne, tortilla from Mexican Spanish; spaghetti from Italian to stick to the sphere of humble foodstuffs [7]. If local dialect gains ascendancy for political and economic reasons, then one expects extensive borrowings from that dialects have to be explained and usually, if the records are not too scanty, explanation on the need-filling basis is possible. То comprehend the nature of the English vocabu1ary and its historical development it is necessary to examine the etymology of its different layers, the historica1 causes of their appearance, their volume and role and the comparative importance of native and borrowed e1ements in replenishing the Eng1ish vocabulary. Before embarking upon а description of the Eng1ish word-stock from this point of view we decided to make speica1 mention of some terms. 1. In linguistic literature the term native is conventional1y used to denote words of Anglo-Saxon origin brought to the British Isles from the continent in the 5th century bу the Gemanic tribes – the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes. Practically, however, the term is often applied to words whose origin cannot be traced to аnу other language. Thus, the word path is classified as native just because its origin has not yet been estab1ished with аny degree of certainty. It is possible to conjecture that further progress of linguistic science may throw some light upon its origin and it may prove to have been borrowed at some еarlier period. It is for this reason that Prоfеssоr А.I.Smirnitsky relying оn the earliest manuscripts of the English language available suggested another interpretation of the term nаtive – as words which may be presumed to have existed in the Eng1ish word-stock of the 17th century. This interpretation may have somewhat more reliable criteria behind it, but it seems to have the same drawback – both viewpoints present the native element in English as static. 2. The term borrowings is used in linguistics to denote the process of adopting words from their languages and аlso the result of this process, the language material itself. It has already been stated that not only words, but аlso word-building аffixes were borrowed into English. It must bе rnentioned that some word-groups, too, were borrowed in their foreign form [8]. In its second meaning the term borrowing is sometimes used in а wider sense. It is extended onto the so-callеd translation-loans (or loan-translations) аnd semantic borrowing. Translation-loans аге words and expressions fоrmеd from the material avai1able in the language after the patterns characteristic of the given language, but under the influenceof some foreign words and expressions (wall newspaper < Russ. стенгазета). Semantic borrowing is the appearence of а new meaning due to the influence of a related word in another language (the word bureau entered political vocabulary, as Political bureau, under the influence of Russian). Further on we shall use the turm borrowings in its second meaning, as a borrowing proper or a word taken over in its material form. Distinction should bе made between tгuе borrowings and words formed out of morphemes borrowed from Latin and Greek, e.g. telephone, pbonogram. Such words were never part of Latin and Greek and they do not reflect any contacts with the peoples speaking those languages. It is of importance to note that the term borrowings belongs to diасhrоniс description of the wоrd-stосk. Thus the words wine, cheap, pound introduced bу the Romans into а11 Germanic dialects long before the Ang1es and the Saxons settled оп the British Isles, and such late Latin loans as libi, memorandum, stratum may all be reffered to borrowings from the same language in describing their origin, though in modern Eng1ish they constitute distinctly different groups of words [9]. 3. There is also certain confusion between the terms source of borrowings and origin of the word. This confusion may be seen in contradictory marking of one and the same word as, say, а French borrowing in оnе dictionary and Latin borrowing in another. It is suggested here that the term sourceof borrowing should bе applied to the language from which thisor that particular word was taken into EngIish. So when describing words as Latin, French or Scandinavian borrowings we point out their source but not their origin. The te1rmorigin of the word should be applied to the language the word mау be traced to. It should be remembered, however, that whereas the immediate source of borrowing is as а ru1e known and cаn bе stated with some certainty, the actual origin of thе word mey be rather doubtful. Foг example, the word ink was borrowed frоm Old French, but it may be traced back to Latin and stiI1 further to Greek , and it is quite possible that it was borrowed intо Greek from the other 1anguage [10]. The immediate source of borrowing is naturally of greater importencafor language students because it reveals the extra-linguistic factors responsible for the act of borrowing, because the borrowed words bear, as a rule, the imprint of the sound and graphic form, the morphological and semantic structure characteristic of the language they were borrowed from. In its 15 century long history recorded in written manuscripts the English language happened to come in long and close contact with several other languages, mainly Latin, French and Old Norse (or Scandinavian). The great influx of borrowings from these sources cаn bе accounted for by a number of historical causes. Due to the great influence of the Roman сivilixation Latin was for а long time used in England as the languge of learning and religion. Old Norse was the language of the conquerors who were оn thee same level of socia1 and cultural development and who merged rather easily with the local population in the 9th, 10th and the first hаlf of the 11th century. French (to be more exact its Norman dialect) was the language of the other conquerors who brought with them а lot of new notions of a higher social system – developed feudalism, it wa the language of upper classes, of official documents and school instruction from the middle of the 11th century to the end of the 14th century. In the study of the borrowed element in English the main emphasis is as a rule placed оn the Midd1e English period. Borrowings of later periods became the object of investigation only in recent years. These investigations have shown that the fIow of of borrowings has been steady and uninterpreted. The greatest number has come from French. They refer to various fields of social-politica1, scientific and cultural life. А large porton of borrowings (41 %) is scientific and technical terms [11]. The number and character of borrowed words tell us of the re1ations between the peoples, the leve1 of their culture, etc. It is for this reason that borrowings have often been called the milestones of history. Thus if we gothrough the lists of borrowings in English and arrange them in groups according to their meaning, we shall be able to obtain much valuable information with regard to Egland’s contacts with many nations. Some borrowings, however, cannot be explained by the direct influence of certain historical conditions, they do not come along with any new objects or ideas. It must be pointed out that whi1e the general historical causes of borrowing from different languages have been studied with а considerablе degree of thoroughness the purely linguistic reasons for borrowing аrе still open to investigation. The number and character of borrowings do not only depend оn the historical conditions, оn the nature and length of the contacts, but a1so on the degree of the genetic and stгuсtural proximity of languages соncerned. The closer the languages, the deeper and more versatile is the influence. This largely accounts for the well-marked contrast between the French and the Scandinavian influence on the English language.Thus under the influence of the Scandinavian languages, which were close1y related to Old English;some classes of words were borrowed that could not have been adopted from non-related or distantly related languages. Borrowings enter the language in two ways: through oral speech (by immediate contact between the people) and through written speech (by indirect contact through books, etc.) [12]. Oral borrowing took place chiefly in the early periods of history, whereas in recent times written borrowings gained importance. Words borrowed orally are used short and they undergo considerable changes in the act of adoption. Written borrowings preserve their spelling and some pecularities of their sound-form; their assimilation is а long and laborious process.

1.2 The types of borrowings Borrowed words (loan words, borrowings) are the words which are taken over from another language and modified according to the patterns of the receiving language. The following types of borrowings can be distinguished: - loan words proper– the sound-form and they are borrowed together (sky – Scandinavia, to dance – French). - borrowed word-building morphemes – first a number of words with the morpheme is taken from another language, then the morpheme begins to form new words(-able -Latin; -ment -French; -ism -Greek). - translation loans (кальки) – patterns taken from another language are formed with native English material (Lingua materna – mother-tongue) - semantic loans – a new sense of an English word that appeared under the influence of a related word in another language (reaction; to move (change)) - word coins (произведенные) from Latin and Greek – are formed to denote new notions or inventions using Latin or Greek words (telephone)
Latin borrowings [8] . Among words of Romanic origin borrowed from Latin during the period when the British Isles were a part of the Roman Empire, there are such words as: street, port, wall etc. Many Latin and Greek words came into English during the Adoption of Christianity in the 6-th century. At this time the Latin alphabet was borrowed which ousted the Runic alphabet. These borrowings are usually called classical borrowings. Here belong Latin words: alter, cross, dean, and Greek words: church, angel, devil, anthem. Latin and Greek borrowings appeared in English during the Middle English period due to the Great Revival of Learning. These are mostly scientific words because Latin was the language of science at the time. These words were not used as frequently as the words of the Old English period, therefore some of them were partly assimilated grammatically, e.g. formula - formulae. Here also belong such words as: memorandum, minimum, maximum, veto etc [13]. Classical borrowings continue to appear in Modern English as well. Mostly they are words formed with the help of Latin and Greek morphemes. There are quite a lot of them in medicine (appendicitis, aspirin), in chemistry (acid, valency, alkali), in technique (engine, antenna, biplane, airdrome), in politics (socialism, militarism), names of sciences (zoology, physics). In philology most of terms are of Greek origin (homonym, archaism, lexicography). The largest groups of borrowings are French borrowings. Most of them came into English during the Norman Conquest. French influenced not only the vocabulary of English but also its spelling, because French scribes wrote documents as the local population was mainly illiterate, and the ruling class was French. Runic letters remaining in English after the Latin alphabet was borrowed were substituted by Latin letters and combinations of letters, e.g. «v» was introduced for the voiced consonant /v/ instead of «f» in the intervocal position /lufian - love/, the digraph «ch» was introduced to denote the sound /ch/ instead of the letter «c» / chest/ before front vowels where it had been palatalized, the digraph «sh» was introduced instead of the combination «sc» to denote the sound /sh/ /ship/, the digraph «th» was introduced instead of the Runic letters «0» and « » /this, thing/, the letter «y» was introduced instead of the Runic letter «3» to denote the sound /j/ /yet/, the digraph «qu» substituted the combination «cw» to denote the combination of sounds /kw/ /queen/, the digraph «ou» was introduced to denote the sound /u:/ /house/ (The sound /u:/ was later on diphthongized and is pronounced /au/ in native words and fully assimilated borrowings). As it was difficult for French scribes to copy English texts they substituted the letter «u» before «v», «m», «n» and the digraph «th» by the letter «o» to escape the combination of many vertical lines /«sunu» - «son», luvu» - «love»/.
Borrowing of French words [13]. There are the following semantic groups of French borrowings:
a) words relating to government : administer, empire, state, government;
b) words relating to military affairs: army, war, banner, soldier, battle;
c) words relating to jury: advocate, petition, inquest, sentence, barrister;
d) words relating to fashion: luxury, coat, collar, lace, pleat, embroidery;
e) words relating to jewelry: topaz, emerald, ruby, pearl;
f) words relating to food and cooking: lunch, dinner, appetite, to roast, to stew.
Words were borrowed from French into English after 1650, mainly through French literature, but they were not as numerous and many of them are not completely assimilated. There are the following semantic groups of these borrowings:
a) words relating to literature and music: belle-lettres, conservatorie, brochure, nuance, piruette, vaudeville; b) words relating to military affairs: corps, echelon, fuselage, manouvre; c) words relating to buildings and furniture: entresol, chateau, bureau; d) words relating to food and cooking: ragout, cuisine.
Italian borrowings. Cultural and trade relations between Italy and England brought many Italian words into English. The earliest Italian borrowing came into English in the 14-th century, it was the word «bank» /from the Italian «banko» - «bench»/. Italian moneylenders and moneychangers sat in the streets on benches. When they suffered losses they turned over their benches, it was called «banco rotta» from which the English word «bankrupt» originated. In the 17-th century some geological terms were borrowed: volcano, granite, bronze, lava. At the same time some political terms were borrowed: manifesto, bulletin [14]. But mostly Italian is famous by its influence in music and in all Indo-European languages musical terms were borrowed from Italian: alto, baritone, basso, tenor, falsetto, solo, duet, trio, quartet, quintet, opera, operetta, libretto, piano, violin.
Among the 20-th century Italian borrowings we can mention: gazette, incognito, altostrati, fiasco, fascist, dilettante, grotesque, graffitto etc.
Spanish borrowings. Spanish borrowings came into English mainly through its American variant. There are the following semantic groups of them: a) trade terms: cargo, embargo; b) names of dances and musical instruments: tango, rumba, habanera, guitar; c) names of vegetables and fruit: tomato, potato, tobacco, cocoa, banana, ananas, apricot etc. Scandinavian borrowings. By the end of the Old English period English underwent a strong influence of Scandinavian due to the Scandinavian conquest of the British Isles. Scandinavians belonged to the same group of peoples as Englishmen and their languages had much in common. As the result of this conquest there are about 700 borrowings from Scandinavian into English [8]. Scandinavians and Englishmen had the same way of life, their cultural level was the same, they had much in common in their literature therefore there were many words in these languages which were almost identical, e.g.
However there were also many words in the two languages which were different, and some of them were borrowed into English, such nouns as: bull, cake, egg, kid, knife, skirt, window etc, such adjectives as: flat, ill, happy, low, odd, ugly, wrong, such verbs as : call, die, guess, get, give, scream and many others.
Even some pronouns and connective words were borrowed which happens very seldom, such as: same, both, till, fro, though, and pronominal forms with «th»: they, them, their. Scandinavian influenced the development of phrasal verbs, which did not exist in Old English, at the same time some prefixed verbs came out of usage, e.g. ofniman, beniman. Phrasal verbs are now highly productive in English /take off, give in etc/. German borrowings. There are some 800 words borrowed from German into English. Some of them have classical roots, e.g. in some geological terms, such as: cobalt, bismuth, zink, quarts, gneiss, wolfram. There were also words denoting objects used in everyday life which were borrowed from German: iceberg, lobby, and rucksack, Kindergarten etc.
In the period of the Second World War the following words were borrowed: Volkssturm, Luftwaffe, SS-man, Bundeswehr, gestapo, gas chamber and many others. After the Second World War the following words were borrowed: Berufsverbot, Volkswagen etc. Holland borrowings. Holland and England have constant interrelations for many centuries and more than 2000 Holland borrowings were borrowed into English. Most of them are nautical terms and were mainly borrowed in the 14-th century, such as: freight, skipper, pump, keel, dock, reef, deck, leak and many others.
Besides two main groups of borrowings (Romanic and Germanic) there are also borrowings from a lot of other languages. We shall speak about Russian borrowings, borrowings from the language, which belongs to Slavonic languages.
Russian borrowings. There were constant contacts between England and Russia and they borrowed words from one language into the other. Among early Russian borrowings there are mainly words connected with trade relations, such as: rouble, copeck, pood, sterlet, vodka, sable, and also words relating to nature, such as: taiga, tundra, steppe etc.
There is also a large group of Russian borrowings which came into English through Russian literature of the 19-th century, such as : Narodnik, moujik, duma, zemstvo. volost, ukase etc, and also words which were formed in Russian with Latin roots, such as: nihilist, intelligenzia, Decembrist etc.
After the Great October Revolution many new words appeared in Russian connected with the new political system, new culture, and many of them were borrowed into English, such as: collectivization. udarnik, Komsomol etc and also translation loans, such as: shock worker, collective farm, five-year plan etc.
One more group of Russian borrowings is connected with perestroika, such as: glasnost, nomenklatura, apparatchik etc [15].

1.3 Classification of borrowings according to the borrowed aspect and degree of assimilation. There are the following groups: phonetic borrowings, translation loans, semantic borrowings, and morphemic borrowings. Phonetic borrowings are most characteristic in all languages; they are called loan words proper. Words are borrowed with their spelling, pronunciation and meaning. Then they undergo assimilation, each sound in the borrowed word is substituted by the corresponding sound of the borrowing language. In some cases the spelling is changed. The structure of the word can also be changed. The position of the stress is very often influenced by the phonetic system of the borrowing language. The paradigm of the word, and sometimes the meaning of the borrowed word are also changed. Such words as: labour, travel, table, chair, people are phonetic borrowings from French; apparatchik, nomenklatura, sputnik are phonetic borrowings from Russian; bank, soprano, duet are phonetic borrowings from Italian etc. Translation loans are word-for-word (or morpheme-for-morpheme) translations of some foreign words or expressions. In such cases the notion is borrowed from a foreign language but it is expressed by native lexical units, «to take the bull by the horns» (Latin), «fair sex» (French), «living space» (German) etc. Some translation loans appeared in English from Latin already in the Old English period, e.g. Sunday (solis dies). There are translation loans from the languages of Indians, such as: «pipe of peace», «pale-faced», from German «masterpiece», «homesickness», «superman». Semantic borrowings are such units when a new meaning of the unit existing in the language is borrowed. It can happen when we have two relative languages which have common words with different meanings, e.g. there are semantic borrowings between Scandinavian and English, such as the meaning «to live» for the word «to dwell’ which in Old English had the meaning «to wander». Or else the meaning «дар», «подарок» for the word «gift» which in Old English had the meaning «выкуп за жену». Semantic borrowing can appear when an English word was borrowed into some other language, developed there a new meaning and this new meaning was borrowed back into English, e.g. «brigade» was borrowed into Russian and formed the meaning «a working collective», »бригада». This meaning was borrowed back into English as a Russian borrowing. The same is true of the English word «pioneer». Morphemic borrowings are borrowings of affixes which occur in the language when many words with identical affixes are borrowed from one language into another, so that the morphemic structure of borrowed words becomes familiar to the people speaking the borrowing language, e.g. we can find a lot of Romanic affixes in the English word-building system, that is why there are a lot of words - hybrids in English where different morphemes have different origin, e.g. «goddess», «beautiful» etc [16]. The degree of assimilation of borrowings depends on the following factors: a) from what group of languages the word was borrowed, if the word belongs to the same group of languages to which the borrowing language belongs it is assimilated easier, b) in what way the word is borrowed: orally or in the written form, words borrowed orally are assimilated quicker, c) how often the borrowing is used in the language, the greater the frequency of its usage, the quicker it is assimilated, d) how long the word lives in the language, the longer it lives, the more assimilated it is. Accordingly borrowings are subdivided into: completely assimilated, partly assimilated and non-assimilated (barbarisms) [17]. Completely assimilated borrowings are not felt as foreign words in the language, if the French word «sport» and the native word «start». Completely assimilated verbs belong to regular verbs, e.g. correct -corrected. Completely assimilated nouns form their plural by means of s-inflexion, e.g. gate- gates. In completely assimilated French words the stress has been shifted from the last syllable to the last but one. When a word is taken over into another language, its semantic structure as a rule undergoes great changes. Polysemantic words are usually adopted only in one or two of their meanings. Thus the word timbre that had a number of meanings in French was borrowed into English as a musical term only. The words cargo and cask, highly polysemantic in Spanish, were adopted only in one of their meanings — ‘the goods carried in a ship’, ‘a barrel for holding liquids’ respectively. • In some cases we can observe specialisation of meaning, as in the word hangar, denoting a building in which aeroplanes are kept (in French it meant simply ’shed’) and revue, which had the meaning of ‘review’ in French and came to denote a kind of theatrical entertainment in English. In the process of its historical development a borrowing sometimes acquired new meanings that were not to be found in its former semantic structure. For instance, the verb move in Modern English has developed the meanings of ‘propose’, ‘change one’s flat’, ‘mix with people’ and others that the French mouvoir does not possess. The word scope, which originally had the meaning of ‘aim, purpose’, now means ‘ability to understand’, ‘the field within which an activity takes place, sphere’, ‘opportunity, freedom of action’. As a rule the development of new meanings takes place 50 — 100 years after the word is borrowed. The semantic structure of borrowings changes in other ways as well. Some meanings become more general, others more specialised, etc. For instance, the word terrorist, that was taken over from French in the meaning of ‘Jacobin’, widened its meaning to ‘one who governs, or opposes a government by violent means’. The word umbrella, borrowed in the meaning of a ’sunshade’ or ‘parasol’ (from It. ombrella <ombra — ’shade) came to denote similar protection from the rain as well. Usually the primary meaning of a borrowed word is retained throughout its history, but sometimes it becomes a secondary meaning. Thus the Scandinavian borrowings wing, root, take and many others have retained their primary meanings to the present day, whereas in the OE. fēolaze (MnE. fellow) which was borrowed from the same source in the meaning of ‘comrade, companion’, the primary meaning has receded to the background and was replaced by the meaning that appeared in New English ‘a man or a boy’. Sometimes change of meaning is the result of associating borrowed words with familiar words which somewhat resemble them in sound but which are not at all related. This process, which is termed folk etymology, often changes the form of the word in whole or in part, so as to bring it nearer to the word or words with which it is thought to be connected, e.g. the French verb sur(o)under had the meaning of ‘overflow’. In English -r(o)under was associated by mistake with round — круглый and the verb was interpreted as meaning ‘enclose on all sides, encircle’ (MnE. surround). Old French estandard (L. estendere — ‘to spread’) had the meaning of ‘a flag, banner’. In English the first part was wrongly associated with the verb stand and the word standard also acquired the meaning of ’something stable, officially accepted’. Folk-etymologisation is a slow process; people first attempt to give the foreign borrowing its foreign pronunciation, but gradually popular use evolves a new pronunciation and spelling. Semantic assimilation of borrowed words depends on the words existing in the borrowing language, as a rule, a borrowed word does not bring all its meanings into the borrowing language, if it is polysemantic, e.g. the Russian borrowing «sputnik» is used in English only in one of its meanings. Partly assimilated borrowings are subdivided into the following groups: a) Borrowings non-assimilated semantically, because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from the language of which they were borrowed, e.g. sari, sombrero, taiga, kvass etc. b) Borrowings non-assimilated grammatically, e.g. nouns borrowed from Latin and Greek retain their plural forms (bacillus - bacilli, phenomenon - phenomena, datum -data, and genius - genii etc. c) Borrowings non-assimilated phonetically. Here belong words with the initial sounds /v/ and /z/, e.g. voice, zero. In native words these voiced consonants are used only in the intervocal position as allophones of sounds /f/ and /s/ (loss - lose, life - live). Some Scandinavian borrowings have consonants and combinations of consonants which were not palatalized, e.g. /sk/ in the words: sky, skate, ski etc (in native words we have the palatalized sounds denoted by the digraph «sh», e.g. shirt); sounds /k/ and /g/ before front vowels are not palatalized e.g. girl, get, give, kid, kill, kettle. In native words we have palatalization, e.g. German, child. Some French borrowings have retained their stress on the last syllable, e.g. police, and cartoon. Some French borrowings retain special combinations of sounds, e.g. /a:3/ in the words : camouflage, bourgeois, some of them retain the combination of sounds /wa:/ in the words: memoir, boulevard. d) Borrowings can be partly assimilated graphically, e.g. in Greek borrowings «y» can be spelled in the middle of the word (symbol, synonym), «ph» denotes the sound /f/ (phoneme, morpheme), «ch» denotes the sound /k/(chemistry, chaos),«ps» denotes the sound /s/ (psychology). Latin borrowings retain their polysyllabic structure, have double consonants, as a rule, the final consonant of the prefix is assimilated with the initial consonant of the stem, (accompany, affirmative). French borrowings which came into English after 1650 retain their spelling, e.g. consonants «p», «t», «s» are not pronounced at the end of the word (buffet, coup, debris), Specifically French combination of letters «eau» /ou/ can be found in the borrowings: beau, chateau, troussaeu. Some of digraphs retain their French pronunciation: ‘ch’ is pronounced as /sh/, e.g. chic, parachute, ‘qu’ is pronounced as /k/ e.g. bouquet, «ou» is pronounced as /u:/, e.g. rouge; some letters retain their French pronunciation, e.g. «i» is pronounced as /i:/, e,g, chic, machine; «g» is pronounced as /3/, e.g. rouge. Modern German borrowings also have some peculiarities in their spelling: common nouns are spelled with a capital letter e.g. Autobahn, Lebensraum; some vowels and digraphs retain their German pronunciation, e.g. «a» is pronounced as /a:/ (Dictat), «u» is pronounced as /u:/ (Kuchen), «au» is pronounced as /au/ (Hausfrau), «ei» is pronounced as /ai/ (Reich); some consonants are also pronounced in the German way, e.g. «s» before a vowel is pronounced as /z/ (Sitskrieg), «v» is pronounced as /f/ (Volkswagen), «w» is pronounced as /v/ , «ch» is pronounced as /h/ (Kuchen). Non-assimilated borrowings (barbarisms) are borrowings which are used by Englishmen rather seldom and are non-assimilated, e.g. addio (Italian), tete-a-tete (French), dolce vita (Italian), duende (Spanish), an homme a femme (French), gonzo (Italian) etc [18]. The role of loan words in the formation and development of English vocabulary is dealt with in the history of the language. It is there that the historical circumstances are discussed under which words borrowed from Latin, from Scandinavian dialects, from Norman and Parisian French and many other languages, including Russian, were introduced into English. Lexicology, on the other hand, has in these connection tasks of its own, being chiefly concerned with the material and results of assimilation. The main problems of etymology and borrowed words as they concern the English language are comprehensively and consistently treated. It deals with these issues mainly in terms of word sameness reflecting his methodological approach to word theory [19]. In the present paragraph attention must be concentrated on the assimilation of loan words as a way of their interaction with the system of the language as a whole. The term assimilation of a loan word is used to denote a partial or total conformation to the phonetically, graphical and morphological standards of the receiving language and its semantic system. The degree of assimilation depends upon the length of period during which the word has been used in the receiving language, upon its importance for communication purpose and its frequency. Oral borrowings due to personal contacts are assimilated more completely and more rapidly than literary borrowings, i.e. borrowings through written speech. A classification of loan words according to the degree of assimilation can be only very general as no rigorous procedure for measuring it has so far been developed. The following three groups may be suggested: completely assimilated loan words, partially assimilated loan words may be subdivided depending on the aspect that remains unaltered, i.e. according to whether the word retains features of spelling, pronunciation, morphology or denotation (when the word denotes some specific regalia) that are not English. The third group forms part of the English vocabulary, because they occur in speech only, but do not enter the language [19]. Completely assimilated loan words are found in all the layers of older borrowings. They may belong to the first layer of Latin borrowings, e.g. cheese, street, wall or wine. Among Scandinavian loan words we find such frequent nouns as husband, fellow, gate, root, wing; such verbs as call, die, take, want and adjectives like happy, ill, low, odd and wrong. Completely assimilated French words are extremely numerous and frequent. Suffice it to mention such everyday words as table and chair, face and figure, finish and matter. A considerable number of Latin words borrowed during the revival of learning are at present almost indistinguishable from the rest of the vocabulary. Neither animal nor article differs noticeably from native words. The number of completely assimilated loan words follow all morphological, phonetical and as dominant words in synonymic groups. They take an active part in word-formation. Moreover, their morphological structure and motivation remain transparent, so that they arre morphologically analyzable and therefore supply the English vocabulary not only with free forms but also with bound forms, as affixes are easily perceived and separated in series of loan words that contain them. Such are , for instance, the French suffixes –age, -ance, -ment, and English modification of French –eese and –fier,which provide speech material to produce hybrids like shortage, godless, hindrance, specify and endearment. The free forms, on the other hand, are readily combined with native affixes, e.g. pained, painful, painfully, painless, painlessness, all formed from pain Fr. Peine Lat. Poena Gr. Poine ‘penalty’. The subject of hybrids has already been dealt with in the chapter on derivation [19]. Completely assimilated loan words are also indistinguishable phonetically. It is impossible to say judging by the sound of the words sport and start whether they are borrowed or native. In fact start is native, derived from ME sterten, whereas sport is a shortening of disport Fr. deto amuse oneself’, ‘ to carry oneself away from one’s work’ (ultimately derived from Lat portare ‘to carry’). This last example brings us to the problem of semantic assimilation. This problem deserves far more attention than has hitherto been given to it. Its treatment has been limited so far to passing remarks in works dealing with other subjects. The first thing that needs stressing is that a loan word never brings into the receiving language the whole of its semantic structure if it is polysemantic in the original language. And even the borrowed variants are for the most part changed and specialized in the new system. The word sport can serve as an illustration. It had a much wider scope in Old French denoting pleasures. Making merry and entertainment in general. It was borrowed into many European languages and became international. This process of semantic specialization in borrowing is even more evident in such loan words from Russian as Soviet and sputnik, whose Russian prototypes are polysemantic. In the light of current ideas, it is convenient to classify and study loan words as oppositions of the words as they exist in the receiving language with their prototypes in the source language, on the one hand, nad with words of the same lexica-grammatical class or (depending on the level chosen) of the same morphological or phonetically pattern in the receiving language. Specialization is primarily due to the fact that the receiving system has at its disposal words for the older notions, and it is only the notion that needs a new name. Even so, the borrowing of a new word leads as a rule to semantic changes in words already existing in the language. The interaction of linguistic and extra linguistic, i.e. political, economical and cultural factors in this has been investigated [20]. The conformity of the completely assimilated loan words to morphological patterns of the English paradigms may be illustrated by Scandinavian loans taking the plural ending –s; eggs, gates, laws; or Latin loan verbs with dental suffix of the Past indefinite and Participle II: acted, corrected, disturbed. To illustrate the frequency of completely assimilated words it is sufficient to mention that many of them are included in the list of 500 most frequent words are : act (Lat), age(F), army(Fr), bill(Lat), case(Fr), die(Scand) [21]. The second group containing partially assimilated loan words can be subdivided into subgroups. The oppositions are equipollent. Loan words not assimilated semantically, because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from which they come. They may denote foreign clothing: mantilla, sombrero; foreign titles and professions: shah, rajah, sheik, bei, toreador; forign vehicles: caique (Turkish), rickshaw (Chineese); food and drinks: pilaw (Persian); sherbet(Arabian); foreign currency: krone(Denmark), rupee(India), zloty (Poland) peseta(Spain), rouble(USSR), etc. Loan words not assimilated grammatically, for example, nouns borrowed from Latin or Greek which keep their original plural forms: bacillus-bacilli; crisis-crises; formula-formulae; index-indices; phenomenon-phenomena. Some of these are also used in English plural forms, but in that case there may be a difference in lexical meaning, as in indices-indexes. Usually as soon as words from other languages were introduced into English they lost their former grammatical categories and paradigms and acquired hew grammatical categories and paradigms by analogy with other English words, as in им. спутник Com. sing. Sputnik род. спутника Poss. sing. Sputnik’s дат. спутнику Com. pl. Sputniks вин. спутник Poss. pl. Sputniks’ вин. спутником предл. о спутнике However, there are some words in Modern English that have for centuries retained their foreign inflexions. Thus a considerable group of borrowed nouns, all of them terms or literary words adopted in the 16th century or later, have preserved their original plural inflexion to this day, e.g. phenomenon (L.) — phenomena; addendum (L.) — addenda; parenthesis (Gr.) — parentheses. Other borrowings of the same period have two plural forms — the native and the foreign, e.g. vacuum (L.) — vacua, vacuums, virtuoso (It.) — virtuosi, virtuosos. All borrowings that were composite in structure in their native language appeared in English as indivisible simple words, unless there were already words with the same morphemes in it, e.g. in the word saunter the French infinitive inflexion -er is retained (cf. OFr. s'aunter), but it has changed its quality, it is preserved in all the other grammatical forms of the word (cf. saunters, sauntered, sauntering), which means that it has become part of the stem in English. The French reflexive pronoun s- has become fixed as an inseparable element of the word. The former Italian diminishing suffixes -etto, -otta, -ello(a), -cello in the words ballot, stiletto, umbrella cannot be distinguished without special historical analysis, unless one knows the Italian language. The composite nature of the word portfolio is not seen either (cf. It. portafogli < porta — imperative of ‘carry’ + fogli — ’sheets of paper’). This loss of morphological seams in borrowings may be termed simplification by analogy with a similar process in native words.1 It must be borne in mind that when there appears in a language a group of borrowed words built on the same pattern or containing the same morphemes, the morphological structure of the words becomes apparent and in the course of time their word-building elements can be employed to form new words.2 Thus the word bolshevik was at first indivisible in English, which is seen from the forms bolshevikism, bolshevikise, bolshevikian entered by some dictionaries. Later on the word came to be divided into the morphological elements bolshev-ik. The new morphological division can be accounted for by the existence of a number of words containing these elements (bolshevism, bolshevist, bolshevise; sputnik, udarnik, menshevik). Sometimes in borrowed words foreign affixes are replaced by those available in the English language, e.g. the inflexion -us in Latin adjectives was replaced in English with the suffixes -ous or -al: L. barbarus > > E. barbarous; L. botanicus > E. botanical; L. balneus > E. balneal. Loan words not completely assimilated phonetically. The French words borrowed after 1650 afford good examples. Some of them keep the accent on the final syllable: machine, cartoon, and police. Others, alongside with peculiarities in stress, contain sounds or combinations of sounds that are not standard for the English language and do not occur in native words. The examples are [3]-bourgeois, camouflage, prestige, regime, sabotage; {wa}-as in memoir, or the nasalized [a], [o]-mélange. In many cases it is different from the rest of the vocabulary, as in some of the Italian and Spanish borrowings: confetti, incognito, macaroni, opera, sonata, soprano and tomato, potato, tobacco. The pronunciation of words where the process of assimilation is phonetically incomplete will often vary, as in [‘foiei] or [‘fwaje] for foyer and [‘bu:lva:] [‘bu:hva:], [‘bu:leva:], [‘bu:lva:d] for boulevard [22]. Loan words not completely assimilated graphically. It is fairly large and variegated. There are, for instance, words borrowed from French in which the final consonant is riot pronounced, e.g. ballet, buffet, corps. Some may keep a diacritic mark: café, cliché. Specifically French digraphs (ch, qu, our, etc/) may be retained in spelling: bouquet, brioche. Some have variant spellings. It goes without saying that these sets are interesting, i.e. one and the same loan word often shows incomplete assimilation in several respects simultaneously. The third group of borrowings comprises the so-called barbarisms; i.e. words from other languages used by English people in conversation or in writing but not assimilated in any way, and for which there are corresponding English equivalents. The examples are Italian addio, ciao ’good-bye’, the French affiche for ‘placard’ and coup or coup d’Etat ‘a sudden seizure of state power by a small group’, the Latin ad libitum ‘at pleasure’ and the like. The incompleteness of assimilation results in some specific features which permit us to judge of the origin of words. They may serve as formal indications of loan words of Greek, Latin, French or other origin.

1.4 The borrowing process as the reflection of cultural contacts Language contact occurs when speakers of distinct speech varieties interact. The study of language contact is called contact linguistics. Contrary to popular opinion, multilingualism has been common throughout much of human history. Even in hunter-gatherer times, to judge by recent parallels, multilingualism was not uncommon, as bands would need to communicative with neighboring peoples, who often spoke different languages [23]. In-present day areas such as Sub-Saharan Africa, where there is much variation in language over even short distances, it is usual for anyone who dealings outside his own town or village to know two or more languages were spoken in a small territory. Thus, language contact is a very common phenomenon in human history, and the world’s present vast linguistic diversity has developed in the presence of this constant contact. When speakers of different languages interact closely, it is typical for their languages to influence each other. Languages normally develop by gradually accumulating internal differences until one parent languages splits into daughter languages. This is analogous to asexual reproduction in biology. Change due to language contact, in this analogy, is skin to the recombination that happens when separate organisms exchange genetic material. As a matter of fact, they are- if we regard them in the light of present-day English. If, however, their origins are looked into, the picture may seem somewhat bewildering. A person who does not know English but knows French (Italian, Latin, and Spanish) is certain to recognize a great number of familiar-looking words when skipping through an English book. It is true that English vocabulary, which is one of the most extensive amongst the world’s languages, contains an immense number of words of foreign origin. Explanations for this should be sought in the history of the language which is closely connected with the history of the nation speaking language. In order to have a better to understanding of the problem, it will be necessary to go through a brief survey of historical facts, relating to different epochs [4] The first century B.C most of the territory now, known to us as Europe is occupied by the Roman Empire. Among the inhabitants of the continent are Germanic tribes, ”barbarians” a s the arrogant romance call them. Theirs is really a rather primitive stage of development, especially if compared with the high civilization and refinement of Rome. By etymology of words is understood their origin. Breeders, European and Germanic elements. The latter fact is some importance for the purposes of the survey. Now, comes an event which brings an important change. After a number of wars between the Germanic tribes and Romans these two opposing peoples come into peaceful contact. Trade is carried on, and the Germanic people gain knowledge of new and useful things. The first among them are new things to eat. It has been mentioned that Germanic cattle-breeding was on a primitive scale. Its only products known to the Germanic tribes were meat and milk. It is from the Romans that they learn how to make butter and cheese, as there are naturally no words for these foodstuffs in their tribal languages, they are to use the Latin words to name them(Lat.butyrum, caseus). It is also to the Romans that the Germanic tribes owe the knowledge of some new fruits and vegetables enter the in vocabularies reflecting this new knowledge: cherry (Lat.cerasum), pear (Lat.pirum), plum (Lat.ptunus), pea (Lat.pisum), beet (Lat.beta), pepper (Lat.piper). It is interesting to note that the word plant is a also a Latin borrowing of this period (Lat.planta). Her some more examples of Latin borrowings of this period: cup(Lat.cuppa), kitchen(Lat.coquina), mil(Lat.molina),port( Lat.portus), wine (Lat.vinum). The fact that all these borrowings occurred is in itself significant. It was certainly important that the Germanic tribal languages gained a considerable number of new words and were thus enriched [12]. By the borrowing or loan-word we mean a word which came into the vocabulary of one language from another and was assimilated by the new language. Even more significant was that all these Latin words were destined to become the earliest group of borrowings in the future English language which was-much later-built on the basis of Germanic tribal languages. This brings us to another epoch, much closer to the English language as we know it, both in geographical and chronological terms. The fifth century A.D. several Germanic tribes (the most numerous amongst them being the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes) migrated across the sea now known as the English Channel to the British Isles. There they were confronted by the Celts, the original inhabitants of the Isles. The Celts desperately defended their lands against the invaders, but they were no match for the military-minded Tautens and gradually yielded most of their territory. They retreated to the North and South-West(modern Scotland, Wales and Cornwall). Through their numerous contacts with the defeated Celts, the conquerors got to know and assimilated a number of Celtic words(modern English bald, down, glen, druid, cradle). Especially numerous among the Celtic borrowings were place naes, names of rivers, bills, etc. TheGermanic tribes occupied the land, but the names of many parts and features of their territory remained Celtic.For instance, the names of rivers Avon, Exe, Esk, Usk and Ux originated from Celtic words meaning “river” and “water”. Ironically, even the name of the English capital originates from Celtic llyn+dun in which llyn is another Celtic word for ‘river’ and dun stands for ‘a fortified hill’, the meaning of the whole being ‘fortress on the hill over the river’. Some Latin words entered the Anglo-Saxon languages through Celtic, among them such widely-used words as street (Latin strata via) and wall (Lat.vallum) The seventh century A.D. this century was significant for the Christianization of England. Latin was the official language of the Christian church and consecuently the spread of Christianity was accompanied by a new period of Latin borrowings. These no longer came from spoken Latin as they did eight centuries earlier, but from church Latin. Also these new Latin borrowings were very different in the meaning from the earlier ones. They mostly indicated persons, objects and ideas associated with church religious rituals. For example priest (Lat. Presbyter), bishop (Lat. Episcopus), monk (Lat.Monachus), nun (Lat. Nonna), candle (Lat. Candela). Additionally, in a class of their own were educational terms. It was quite natural that these were also Latin borrowing, for the first schools, and the first teacher’s priests and monks. So the very word school is a Latin borrowing (Lat. Schola, of Greek origin) and so are such words as scholar (Lat.scholar) and magister (Lat. Magister) [13]. From the end of 8th c. to the middle of the 11th c. England underwent several Scandinavian invasions which inevitability left their trace on English vocabulary. Here are some examples of early Scandinavian borrowings: call, v., take, v., cast, v., die, v., law, n., husband, n.(Sc. Hus+bondi, i.e. “inhabitant of the house”), window, n. (Sc. Vindauga, i.e. ”the eye of the wind”), ill, adj., low, adj., weak, adj. Some of the words of this group are easily recognizable as Scandinavian borrowings by the initial sk-combination. For example sky, skill, skin, ski, skirt. Certain English words changed their meanings under the influence of Scandinavian words of same root. So, the O.E. bread which meant “piece” acquired its modern meaning by association with the Scandinavian brand. The O.E. dream which meant “joy’ assimilated the meaning of the Scandinavian draumr (with the Germ. Traum “dream” and the R.дрёма). With the famous Battle of Hastings, when the English were defeated by the Normans under William the conqueror, we come to the eventful epoch of the Norman Conquest. The epoch can be called eventful not only in national, social, political human terms but also in linguistic terms. England became a bi- lingual country, and the impact on the English vocabulary made over this two-hundred-years period is immense: French words from the Norman dialect penetrated every aspect of social life. Here is a very brief list of examples of Norman French borrowings. -Administrative words: state, government, parliament, council, power. -Legal terms: court, judge, justice, crime, prison. -Military terms: army, war, soldier, officer, battle, enemy. -Educational terms: pupil, lesson, library, science, pen, pencil. Everyday life was not unaffected by the powerful influence of French words. Numerous terms of everyday life were also borrowed from French in this period: for example table, plate, saucer, dinner, supper, river, autumn, uncle, etc. The Renaissance Period in England, as in European countries, this period was marked by significant developments in science, art and culture and also by revival of interest in the ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome and their languages. Hence, there occurred a considerable number of Latin and Greek borrowings. In contrast to the earliest Latin borrowings (1st c. B.C.), the Renaissance ones were rarely concrete names. They were mostly abstract words (for example major, minor, filial, moderate, intelligent, permanent, to elect, to create). There were naturally numerous scientific and artistic terms (datum, status, phenomenon, philosophy, method, music). The same is true of Greek Renaissance borrowings (for example atom, cycle, ethics and esthete) [14]. The Renaissance was a period of extensive cultural contacts between the major European states. Therefore, it was only natural that new words also entered the English vocabulary from other European languages. The most significant once more were French borrowings. This time they came from the Parisian dialect of French and are known as Parisian borrowings. Examples: regime, routine, police, machine, ballet, matinee, scene, technique, bourgeois etc. One should note that these words of French origin sound and “look” very different from their Norman predecessors. Italian also contributed a considerable number of words to English, e.g. piano, violin, opera, alarm, colonel. There are certain structural features which enable us to identify some words as borrowings and even to determine the source language. We have already established that the initial sk-usually indicates Scandinavian origin. You can also recognize words of Latin and French origin by certain suffixes, prefixes or endings. The historical survey above is far from complete. Its aim is just to give a very general idea of ways it acquired its vast modern resources. Phenomenon, philosophy, method, music, etc. were borrowed into English from Latin and had earlier come into Latin from Greek (see Apendix). The table requires some explanation. Firstly, it should be pointed out that not only does the second column contain more groups, but it also implies a greater quantity of words. Modern scholars estimate the percentage of borrowed words in the English vocabulary at 65-70 per cent which is an exceptionally high figure. By the native element to prevail. This anomaly is explained by the country’s eventful history and by its many international contacts. On a straight vocabulary count, considering the high percentage of borrowed words, one would have to classify English as a language of international origin or, at least, a romance one 9as French and Latin words obviously prevail). But here another factor comes into play, the relative frequency of occurrence of words, and it is under this heading that the native Anglo-Saxon heritage comes into its own. The native element in English comprises a large number of high-frequency words like the articles, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, auxiliaries and also words denoting everyday objects and ideas (for example house, child, water, go, come, eat, good, bad, etc.) [9]. Furthermore, the grammatical structure is essentially Germanic having remained unaffected by foreign influence. It is probably of some interest to mention that at various times purists have tried to purge the English language of foreign words, replacing them with Anglo-Saxon ones. One slogan created by these linguistic nationalists was: “Avoid Latin derivatives; use brief, terse Anglo-Saxon monosyllables”. The irony is that the only Anglo-Saxon word in the entire slogan is “Anglo-Saxon” Now let us to the first column of the table representing the native element, the original stock of the English vocabulary. The column consists of three groups, only the third being dated: the words of this group appeared in the English vocabulary in the 5th c. or later, that is, after the Germanic tribes migrated to the British Isles. As to the Indo-European and Germanic groups, they are so old that the tribal languages of the Angles, the Saxons, The Jutes, by the time of their migration, contained only words of Indo-European and Germanic roots plus a certain number of the earliest Latin borrowings. By the relations: father, mother, brother, son, daughter. Parts of human body: foot (R.пядь), nose, lip, heart. Animals: cow, swine, goose. Plants: tree, birch(R.береза), corn (R.зерно) Time of day: day, night. Heavenly bodies: sun, moon, star Numerous adjectives: red (Ukr.рудий, R.рыжий), new, glad (R.гладкий), sad(cf.R.сыт). The numerals from one to a hundred. Pronouns-personal (except they which is a Scandinavian borrowing); demonstrative. Numerous verbs: be(R.быть), stand (R.стоять), sit (R.сидеть), eat (R.есть) and know (R.знать). The Germanic element represents words of roots common to all or most Germanic languages. Some of the main groups of Germanic words are same as in the Indo-European element. Parts of the human body: head, hand, arm, finger, bone. Animals: bear, fox, calf. Plants: oak, fir, grass. Natural phenomena: rain, frost. Seasons of the year: winter, spring, summer. Landscape features: sea, land. Human dwellings and furniture: House, room, bench. Sea-going vessels: boat, ship. Adjectives: green, blue, white, small, thick, high, old, good. Verbs: see, hear, speak, tell, say, answer, make, give, drink. It has been mentioned that the English proper element is, in certain respects, opposed to the first two groups. Not only can it be approximately dated, but these words have another distinctive feature: they are specifically English having no cognates in other languages whereas for Indo-European and Germanic words such cognates can always be found, as for instance, for the following words of the Indo-European group. Star: (Germ. Stern), (Lat. Stella), (Gr.Aster). Sad: (Germ, Satt), (Lat. Satis), (R.сыт) Stand: (Germ.stehen), (Lat. Stare),(R.стоять) Here are some examples of English proper words. These words stand quit alone in the vocabulary system of Indo-European languages: bird, boy, girl, lord, lady, woman, daisy, always. Of course, one might remark that Russian vocabulary also has the words лорд, леди, бой. -Autumn is a French borrowing. -Cognates- words of the same etymological root, of common origin of “native servant”). The explanation is simple: these words have been borrowed by Russian from English and therefore are not cognates of their English counterparts [8]. It should be taken into consideration that the English proper element also contains all the later formations, that is words which were made after the 5th c. according to English word-building patterns both from native and borrowed root and the native suffix belongs to the English proper element. It is natural, that the quantity of such words is immense. The Norman French in 1066 differed more strikingly linguistically as well as culturally from thr Anglo-Saxons than did the Danish conquerors of a few centuries earlier. Unlike the situation with the Norse invasions, the Normans looked upon the conquered Anglo-Saxons as social inferiors. French became the language of the upper class; Anglo-Saxon of the lower class. As a result, after the Norman invasion, many Anglo Saxon words narrowed in meaning to describe only the crude, dirtier aspects of life. Concepts associated with culture, fine living and abstract learning tended to be described by new Norman words. Thus, many new doublets appeared in English that were stylistically marked: cow/beef, calf/veal, swine/pork, sheep/mutton, deer/venison, sweat/perspire. Compare Anglo-Saxon work, hard, to Norman French leisure and profit. (In contrast, Norse/Anglo-Saxon doublets like raise/rear, etc., were stylistically neutral, since both peoples held an equal social position) [9]. Consequently, the Norman invasion initiated a vast borrowing of Latin-based words into English. Entire vocabularies were borrowed from Norman French: governmental: count, heraldry, fine, noble, parliament. Military: battle, ally, alliance, ensign, admiral, navy, aid, gallant, march, enemy, escape, peace, war (cf. guerilla). Judicial system: judge, jury, plaintiff, justice, court, suit, defendant, crime, felony, murder, petty/petit, attorney, marriage (Anglo-Saxon wedding), heir. Ecclesiastical: clergy, altar, miracle, preach, pray, sermon, virgin, saint, friar/frère. Cuisine: sauce, boil, filet, soup, pastry, fry, roast, toast. New personal names: John, Mary (Biblical Hebrew and Greek names) and Norman French (Richard, Charles). As Anglo-Saxon and Norman French gradually merged throughout the later middle Ages and the Normans and Anglo-Saxons became one society, the speakers of English tried to effect some linguistic reconciliation between the older Anglo-Saxon words and the Norman French words. Many modern phrases English phrases and sayings still include a word from Norman French alongside a synonymous Anglo-Saxon: law and order, lord and master, love and cherish, ways and means. These doublet phrases capture this attempt to please everybody who might need to be pleased. The Norman French influence was so extensive that even the grammar of English was affected. The changes were mainly confined to the borrowing of derivational affixes. All native prefixes dropped out or became unproductive during this time; the few that survive today are non-productive: be- in besmirch, or for-in forgive, forstall; they were replaced by Latin: ex-, pre, pro, dis, re, anti, inter. Many Norman French suffixes were borrowed: -or vs. –er; -tion, -ment, -ee, -able as a suffix. The period of Middle English cme to a close by about 1450, by the time the two languages of Norman and Anglo-Saxon had merged into a single linguistic form. Actually, what happened was that the more numerous Anglo-Saxon speakers triumphed over the Norman French, who came to adopt English in place of French. But the English of 1500 contained a tremendous number of Norman French words. The Norman French influx of words into English was on an unprecedented scale. No other European language has a vocabulary date back to the time of Old English. A Brown University team ran 1 million words from modern different words and over half were borrowed from Norman French. Listed in order of frequency, however, every one of the 100 most commonly used words was Anglo-Saxon. Thus, the core of English vocabulary remained Germanic. The major change in English during the later period of Modern English, however, has been the continued expansion of the vocabulary from every convenient available source. Some language communities show an aversion to borrowing words; Icelandic and Hebrew, for example, prefer inventing their own new words (poato- Hebrew tappuah; computer- tolle). English has never had such an aversion, although some purists have tried to replace borrowed English words with words made from native roots: yeasay instead of affirmation; witcraft instead of logic (these were actually proposed in 1573). Usually, however, the purists among English speakers have lost out to the borrowers. On the other hand, when scholarly types tried to borrow Latin and terms not out of necessity for describing new things and concepts but out of intellectual arrogance and pomp, they were not always successful [11]. The influence of new lands and new peoples in the colonial era has brought to English many new words. Enthusiastic pursuit of the sciences has also ledto a great increase in vocabulary; often the new scientific words are coined on the basis of Latin and Greek in much the same way as occurred at the beginning of the scientific age. The tendency of English to borrow words has never abated since the earkiest times. Let’s review the main sources of borrowing. North European aboriginal terms into Common Germanic (before 2000BC) Latin terms from the Romans into west Germanic (100BC-400AD) Christianized Latin terms into Anglo Saxon (after 587AD) Old Norse into Anglo Saxon (700-900AD) Norman French into Old English (1066-1300 AD) Ancient Latin and Greek into Modern English (1500-through the present) Borrowings of words from other English languages and dialects have produced a rich collection of synonyms in Modern English. The resulting lexical doublets themselves tell a lot about the history of the language: As a result of historical events stretching back 1200 years, the vocabulary of English is enormously large, rich and varied. The original Germanic language of Anglo Saxon settlers has been subjected to three main waves of influence, Scandinavian and French as a result of invasion, and Latin as a result of intellectual developments during the Renaissance. There have also been other influences from around the world, not least from other varieties of English, such as American and Australian, during the modern period [24]. According to historians some contacts between Russia and England might have occurred in early periods. For example, in some British and Russian chronicles there are some vague pieces of information about the presence of two princes from The British Isles at the court of Jaroslav the Wise. There is also information that in 1074 Gytha – King Harold’s daughter - married the Russian Grand Prince Vladimir Monomakh. King Harold was defeated and killed at Hastings in 1066. According to these chronicles Gytha gave her first son the double name Mstislav-Harold in honour of the grandfather [27]. However, these early contacts were of an occasional character. Permanent trade and diplomatic relations between the two countries were established only in the middle of the 16th century from the moment when the British navigator Richard Chancellor was given an audience with Ivan IV (The Terrible) in Moscow. It must be mentioned that in 1553 The English Company of Merchant Adventures for the Discovery of Lands, Territories, Isles, Dominions and Seignories Unknown organized an expedition for the exploration of a possible Northeast Passage to Asia. Edward Bonaventure was the only ship to survive this expedition and all other ships were devastated by storm in the White Sea. Richard Chancellor was second in command under Sir Hugh Willoughby. However, Hugh Willoughby died during this storm. Chancellor managed to reach a fishing wharf in the mouth of Northern Dvina. His negotiations with the Russian czar paved the way for trade with Russia and the formation of Moscovy Company. Moscovy Company is the first important English joint-stock company and it was founded in 1555 in London. The company was granted a Russian trade monopoly. It was dissolved as late as 1917. In order to stimulate the growth of trade in northern Russia the czar built a large port –New Kholmogory (Archangel). When returning to England Richard Chancellor published a book on his voyage to Russia Anglorum navigatio ad Moscovitas. There is also information about this trip in two Russian chronicles: ‘Dvinskaja’ and ‘Nikonovskaja’. After Chancellor’s voyage information about Russia spread quickly in England. Moreover, some phenomena and events of Russia were depicted in William Shakespeare’s works Henry V and Macbeth and in Christopher Marlowe’s play The Massacre at Paris and Tamburlaine the Great. Russia was also mentioned in John Webster’s play The White Devil and Thomas Middleton’s comedy The Roaring Girl. Robert Green tells us about the daughter of the Russian emperor in his work Pandosto. Thus because of the fact that Russia was frequently mentioned in the literary works of this time people in Britain knew a great deal about the country. During the period of his reign czar Ivan IV (The Terrible) invited many skilled British specialists: physicians, chemists and craftsmen. British physicians Robert Jacob, Mark Ridley and Arthur Dee worked at the courtyard of Ivan IV (The Terrible). In the second half of the 16th century British readers derived information about Russia not only from literary works but also from other documentary sources. For example, the British ambassador A Jenkinson made a geographical map of Russia which was published in London in 1552 .One of the well-known writers of the time, Gilles Fletcher (1548-1611), wrote the tractate of the Russe Common Wealth. Cultural contacts between the two countries continued to develop even during the short reign of the czar Boris Godunov (1598-1605). The czar had a plan for starting a university and therefore he sent eighteen young men to Europe to study. Four of them were sent to England: to Winchester, Eton, Cambridge and Oxford. In 1617 another student, Ivan Almazenov, was sent to The University of Cambridge. It must be mentioned that in the first half of the 17th century the new elements of style appeared in the Russian architecture. For instance, the British clock master Christopher Halloway was entrusted to replace the clock in Saviour Tower - a tower of The Moscow Kremlin. Apparently C. Halloway was not only a clock master but also an architect. He brought new elements in the architecture of the tower – the elements of the Gothic and Renaissance architectures. This style had analogies in the palace architecture of Scotland. Another British master, John Taler, constructed the court church of czarina Ekaterina in The Kremlin. In 1624-25 the main gates of The Kremlin were decorated in the Gothic- Renaissance style. In the reign of Peter the Great the development of the relations between the two countries got a new impulse. The importation of the foreign specialists was very significant for Russia because of Peter’s reforms. The British specialists A. Farquarson, S. Gwyun and R. Grace were invited to Russia for the establishment of the School for Mathematical and Navigational Crafts. A. Farquarson made the first tables of logarithms and sine in Russia. Because of his fundamental knowledge the doctor of philosophy and medicine, the member of the London Royal Society Robert Areskin was appointed the head of Aptekarskij Prikaz. The Russian Academy of Sciences was founded in 1725 and its first honourable foreign member was Hans Sloan, the president of the London Royal Society. As known, at this period many young Russians were sent abroad in order to study. It must be mentioned that Russia was described in the writings of many English authors of this period, for instance, in Swift’s Rural Life and ‘Candelius and Vanessa’, in the second part of D. Defoe’s work Robinson Crusoe. Peter I became a popular figure in Britain. In 1718 Haaron Hill published the poem ‘The Northern Star’ which was about Peter I. Continually, in the 18th century the ideas of the English classicism and sentimentalism were spread in Russia [29]. At the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century Britain, the homeland of socialism, attracted many Russian intellectuals. Congresses of the Russian revolutionaries took place in London. After the October Revolution some members of the Russian Royal family immigrated to Britain. The most influential group among Russian immigrants was Cadets lead by P.N. Miljukov. Among Russian immigrants there were also some writers, for instance, V.D. Nabokov. After the October Revolution the interest in Russia increased gradually. In 1921 Britain was the first European country to commit a trade agreement with USSR and in 1924 England established diplomatic relations with the country. Among famous Russian emigrants of the 1930s Bertold Ljubetkin should be mentioned. He was an architect and he represented the Russian avant-gardism in England. At the end of the 19th and the first half of the 20th century a very large amount of translations of Russian literary books were made. One of the most successful Russian books translated into English was F. Dostojevsky’s book The Brothers Karamasov. In the first years after the revolution nearly twenty periodicals about Russia were issued in England. Among them there are such journals as The New Russia, Russian life, The Russian, newspapers: The Russian Outlook, The Russian Gazette, Russian Times, The Russian Economist etc. The British Russian Gazette reported on the activity of the Russian industrials. In 1923 The Slavonic and East European Review was published in London. Thus permanent contacts between Russia and England were established in the middle of the 16th century and they have continued until now. These contacts involve trade, diplomatic and cultural relations. Therefore, people in both countries know a great deal about each other. Furthermore, Britain was not the only English-speaking country with which Russia established cultural, diplomatic and trade contacts. Russia had also such contacts with America in the 18th century. Russianism is an influence of Russian language on other languages. In particular, Russianisms are Russian russified words, expressions, or grammar constructs used in other languages to stay for original Russian notions which do not exist and thus to be loaned to describe Russian concepts [19]. Anyone interested in the origins of English words knows that they come from a host of different languages, including both the well-known ones like Latin, French, Spanish, German, Italian or Japanese, and some lesser-known tongues like Swahili, Xhosa or Quechua. The foreign lexical items refer to practically every sphere of life, and most of them have been relatively well described in the literature. Interestingly, Russian words have not received much attention. Papers on Russianisms are scarce, and they often concentrate on a single aspect of the borrowing process. In spite of such marginal interest, borrowings from Russian have been mentioned in histories of the English language, but it is claimed that the words are rare and insignificant. However, there is some evidence that Russianisms were steadily transferred into the English vocabulary. As they appeared, in some cases extensively, in printed sources, lexicographers started recording them in dictionaries, which are now indispensable resources for reconstructing past language contacts. Dated quotations in the Oxford English Dictionary (second edition, henceforth the OED2) show that the first words were borrowed in the second half of the 16th century by English merchants and ambassadors to Russia, most of whose accounts appeared in Hakluyt’s three-volume publication [30]. In the next century the number of Russianisms dropped slightly, apparently because of intermittent relations between the British and Russian courts (primarily the execution of Charles I led to a decrease in English influence in Russia). In the 18th century, more new Russian words appeared in English, mainly during the reign of Peter the Great, when Russia’s contacts with the West became particularly intensive. The quantity of Russian words increased greatly in the 19th century, which can be attributed to immense and diversified interest in Russia and all things Russian. The violent political situation (the Crimean War, Decembrist uprising, Jewish pogroms), the growth of nihilism and communist ideology, scientific discoveries as well as the development of Russian literature must be viewed as contributing factors. Most loans were taken into English in the 20th century. The distribution of the 20th century loanwords is fairly even, except for a rise in the 1920s (the 1917 Revolution and its effects) and the 1960s (the launch of the first sputnik and the development of astronautics). Characteristically, towards the end of the century interest in Russian words decreases. The 1980s brought two keywords of the decade, perestroika and glasnost, but no other borrowings have become clearly recognizable since. Three issues have to be emphasized at this point. First, not all periods of the history of English are equally well covered in the OED2, because the quotations come from a selection of sources and individual authors, primarily ‘the best writers’, which distorts the overall picture, and might also affect the number of Russian words recorded in each century. Second, the dates presented in the figures may be subject to change; as has been shown by Schäfer, nearly a quarter of all the headwords recorded in the OED2 can be antedated, so that finding earlier textual occurrences for at least some Russianisms is probably a matter of time. Third, although it is clear that many of the borrowings are archaisms; their status in contemporary English is of no importance since I look at the items from the point of view of lexicographic practice [31].
2. Analysis of Russian borrowings based on the examples from monolingual dictionaries of American and British English.
2.1 The meanings and the etymological characteristics of the Russian borrowings Our research material consists of the largest monolingual dictionaries of English. For British English, we took into account Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary of the English Language and the OED2. We also consulted three volumes of the Oxford English Dictionary Additions (henceforth the OEDA) for some recent vocabulary. As regards American English, we examined the Century Dictionary (henceforth the Century), The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Merriam-Webster Online. Collegiate Dictionary and three consecutive editions of Webster’s New International Dictionary (henceforth Webster’s 1, Webster’s 2 and Webster’s 3, respectively. Three volumes of the Barnhart Dictionary of New Words henceforth the BDNW) complement the analysis of American dictionaries. All Russian borrowings chosen from dictionaries are nouns. Totally 59 nouns will be analyzed in this chapter and they are the following words: agitprop, babushka, balalaika, blin, Bolshevik, borzoi, boyar, bridge, chernozem, Comintern, crash, dacha, droshky, Doukhobor, galyak, glasnost, gley, gulag, Kalashnikov, kasha, kefir, kolynsky, kolkhoz, Komsomol, kopeck, kvass, Leninism, mammoth, Menshevik, muzhik, oblast, paulownia, perestroika, piroshki, podzol, politburo, polynia, pood, ruble, samarskite, samisdat, samovar, Samoyed, sastruga, seecatch, sierozem, soviet, sovkhoz, sputnik, starets, stishovite, sterlet, taiga, theremin, tovarich, troika, verst, vodka, zemstvo. Main Entry: agitprop Function: noun. Etymology: Russian, from agitatsiya agitation + propaganda. Date: 1935: PROPAGANDA; especially: political propaganda promulgated chiefly in literature, drama, music, or art. agitprop adjective. Ex.: The greater perversion of capitalist consumption, according to Veblen, was its willingness to waste – a tendency captured in Soviet agitprop as ‘Western decadence.’. Main Entry: babushka Function: noun Etymology: ‘Russian grandmother’, diminutive of baba old woman. Date: 1938. 1 a: ‘a usually triangularly folded kerchief for the head’ b: ‘a head covering resembling a babushka’; 2: an elderly Russian woman. Ex.: How to Tie a Scarf –Babushka. …a wonderful, smiling Russian babushka (grandmother) appeared in my doorway with a steaming bowl of Pokhelbka… Main Entry: balalaika Function: noun. Etymology: Russian. Date: 1788: a usually 3-stringed instrument of Russian origin with a triangular body played by plucking or strumming. Ex.: The varied family of Central Asian lutes is a large one, and one of the most popular and best known is the balalaika, with its unique triangular body shape . Main Entry: blin Function: noun. Inflected Form(s): plural blini or blinis. Etymology: Russian. Date: 1888: a thin often buckwheat pancake usually filled (as with sour cream) and folded. Ex.: When the guests arrived, we served them caviar on buckwheat blini, those tiny little pancakes Main Entry: Bolshevik Function: noun. Inflected Form(s): plural Bolsheviks also Bolsheviki. Etymology: Russian bol’shevik, from bol’shii greater. Date: 1917. 1: a member of the extremist wing of the Russian Social Democratic party that seized power in Russia by the Revolution of November 1917: 2: COM-MUNIST. Bolshevik adjective. Ex.: Would the Bolsheviks of 1917 act any differently? CanadianBolsheviks. Main Entry: borzoi Function: noun. Etymology: Russian borzoi, from borzoi ‘swift’. Date: 1887: ‘any of a breed of large long-haired dogs of greyhound type developed in Russia especially for pursuing wolves’ – called also Russian wolfhound. Ex.: to realize that they are dogs, too...accidents could happen when a Borzoi or even a pack of them chases a fast moving “object” under the full urge to hunt it down… Main Entry: boyar Variant(s): also boyard. Function: noun. Etymology: Russian boyarin. Date: 1591: ‘a member of a Russian aristocratic order next in rank below the ruling princes until its abolition by Peter the Great’. Ex.: On the other hand, the boyars and the lesser members of the ruling class were clearly not vassals of the princes. bridge NOUN: ‘Any of several card games derived from whist, usually played by four people in two partnerships, in which trump is determined by bidding and the hand opposite the declarer is played as a dummy.’ ETYMOLOGY: From earlier biritch (influenced by bridge1), from Russian birich, a call, from Old Russian birich. Ex.: Gates, a bridge fanatic who frequently plays the game online… Main Entry: chernozem Function: noun. Etymology: Russian, from chërnyi ‘black ‘ + zemlya ‘earth’.Date: 1841: ‘any of a group of dark-coloured zonal soils with a deep rich humus horizon found in regions (as the grasslands of central No. America) of temperate to cool climate’ – chernozemic adjective. Ex.: The lower limit of the optimal soil moisture on Chernozem for potato is 75–80% of field water capacity (FWC)… Main Entry: Comintern Function: noun. Etymology: Russian Komintern, from Kommunisticheskii Internatsional Communist International. Date: 1923: the Communist International was established in 1919 and dissolved in 1943. Ex.: The 2nd world congress adopted a list of 21 conditions to determine the admission of parties to the Comintern. Main Entry: crash Function: noun. Etymology: probably from Russian krashe-nina ‘coloured linen’. Date: 1812: ‘a coarse fabric used for draperies, toweling, and clothing and for strengthening joints of cased-in books’. Ex.: Verdugo linen crash for summer suits… Main Entry: dacha Function: noun. Etymology: Russian, from Old Russian, ‘land allotted by a prince’; akin to Latin dos’ dowry’. Date: 1896: ‘a Russian country cottage used especially in the summer’. Ex.: The plane came down 20 miles outside the Siberian city of Irkutsk in the middle of Russia’s southern border, close to the shores of Lake Baikal, where many locals have their dacha, or summerhouse. Main Entry: droshky Variant(s): also drosky. Function: noun Inflected Form(s): plural droshkies also droskies. Etymology: Russian drozhki, from droga ‘pole of a wagon’. Date: 1808: ‘any of various 2- or 4-wheeled carriages used especially in Russia’. Ex.: “The droshky stopped in front of a three-story house.”(Pushkin) Main Entry: Doukhobor Function: noun. Etymology: Russian dukhobor, dukhoborets, from dukh spirit + borets wrestler. Date: 1876: ‘a member of a Christian sect of 18th century Russian origin emphasizing the duty of obeying the inner light and rejecting church or civil authority’. Ex.: The Doukhobors practice a form of Christianity and believe that Jesus Christ is a spiritually advanced teacher and example to others. galyak NOUN: ‘A flat glossy fur made from the pelt of a stillborn lamb or kid’. ETY-MOLOGY: Russian dialectal golyak, ‘sheepskin coat of smooth fur’, from Russian goly, ‘smooth’, ‘bald’, ‘naked’ [34]. Ex.: “…adding 1/2 collar of Galyak for collar of coat”. Main Entry: glasnost. Function: noun. Etymology: Russian glasnost’, literally, ‘publicity’, from glasnyi ‘public’, from glas’ voice’, from Old Church Slavonic glasu – more at CALL. Date: 1986 [33]. Ex.: Mikhail Gorbachev began to promote a policy of openness in public discussions about current and historical problems. The policy was termed glasnost [‘openness’]. Main Entry: gley. Function: noun. ‘A sticky, bluish-gray subsurface layer of clay found in some waterlogged soils’. Etymology: Russian dialectal gle, clay. Ex.: The profile is considered to be that of a ground –water gley, a modification of the calcareus ground water gley found elswere… Main Entry: gulag Function: noun. Usage: often capitalized. Etymology: Russian, from Glavnoe upravlenie ispravitel’no-trudovykh lagerei ‘chief administration of corrective labor camps’. Date: 1974: the penal system of the U.S.S.R. consisting of a network of labor camps; also: LABOR CAMP. Ex.: He ….was subsequently sentenced to five years internment in the infamous GULAG prison camps of Krasnoyarsk, Siberia. Main Entry: Kalashnikov NOUN: Any of a series of assault rifles of Soviet design, especially the AK-47. ETYMOLOGY: After Mikhail Timofeevich ‘Kalashniko’v (born 1919), Soviet arms engineer [34]. Ex.: …the adolescent human male equipped with a Kalashnikov-an AK-47 assault rifle. Main Entry: kasha Function: noun. Etymology: Russian. Date: 1808. 1: ‘a porridge made usually from buckwheat groats’; 2: ‘kasha grain before cooking’ [33]. Ex: Schi and kasha is the meal of Russian. Cup of medium or coarse kasha. Main Entry: kefir Function: noun. Etymology: Russian. Date: 1884: ‘a beverage of fermented cow’s milk’ [33]. Ex.: Hi, this page is dedicated to sharing live Kefir grains among Kefir and yogurt lovers. Main Entry: kolinsky NOUN: Inflected forms: pl. kolinskies 1. A northern Eurasian mink (Mustela siberica) having a dark brown coat with tawny markings. 2. The fur of this animal. ETYMOLOGY: Russian kolinski, of Kola, from Kola, Kola Peninsula. Ex.: Kolinsky - The finest sable, they are ideal for watercolor. The best hairs come from Siberian Kolinsky. Main Entry: kolkhoz Function: noun. Inflected Form(s): plural kolkhozy or kolkhozes Etymology: Russian, from kollektivnoe khozyaistvo ‘collective farm’. Date: 1921: ‘a collective farm of the U.S.S.R’ [33]. Ex.: In 14 % of the cases collectives within the kolkhoz distributed the shares to those worthy of it, i.e. hardworking members of the kolkhoz. Main Entry: Komsomol Function: noun. Etymology: Russian, from Kommunisticheskii Soyuz Molodezhi, ‘Communist Union of Youth’. Date: 1925: a Russian Communist youth organization’. Ex.: The Party has prescribed a certain amount of responsibility to the Komsomol, but it is questionable as to how much political influence is vested there. Main Entry: kopeck Variant(s): or kopek Function: noun. Etymology: Russian kopeika. Date: 1698 – see ruble at MONEY table. Ex.: They were issued in six standard denominations: 10, 25 and 50 kopecks and 1, 5 and 10 roubles. Main Entry: kvass Function: noun. Etymology: Russian kvas. Date: circa 1553: ‘a slightly alcoholic beverage of eastern Europe made from fermented mixed cereals and often flavored’ [33]. Ex.: The beverage enjoyed by Muscovites, other city dwellers and villagers throughout Russia is kvass, a lacto-fermented beverage made from stale rye bread. Main Entry: Leninism Function: noun. Date: 1918: ‘the political, economic, and social principles and policies advocated by Lenin; especially : ‘the theory and practice of communism developed by or associated with Lenin’ – Leninist noun or adjective – Leninite noun or adjective. Ex.: While Marxists may find Taber’s book useful, anarchists no doubt would extend and sharpen his critique of Leninism. Main Entry: mammoth. Function: noun. Etymology: Russian mamont, mamot. Date: 1706. 1: ‘any of a genus (Mammuthus) of extinct Pleistocene elephants distinguished from recent elephants by highly ridged molars, usually large size, very long tusks that curve upward, and well-developed body hair’. 2: ‘something immense of its kind, the company is a mammoth of the industry’. Ex.: …maybe the day will come when our grandchildren will be able to see a living mammoth at their local zoo. Author of the mammoth ‘Ain’t Nobody’s Business if You Do. Main Entry: Menshevik Function: noun. Inflected Form(s): plural Mensheviks or Mensheviki. Etymology: Russian men’shevik, from men’she’ less; from their forming the minority group of the party’. Date: 1907: ‘a member of a wing of the Russian Social Democratic party before and during the Russian Revolution believing in the gradual achievement of socialism by parliamentary methods in opposition to the Bolsheviks’; – Menshevism noun – Menshevist noun or adjective. Ex.: The Mensheviks, along with the other revolutionary groups, were defeated by the Bolsheviks…[35]. Main Entry: muzhik Function: noun. Etymology: Russian. Date: 1568: ‘a Russian peasant’ [33]. Ex.: Out of a mob of muzhiks repressed by feudal slavery of accursed memory, this revolution created, for the first time in Russia, a people beginning to understand its rights… Main Entry: oblast Function: noun. Inflected Form(s): plural oblasts also oblasti Etymology: Russian oblast’. Date: circa 1886: ‘a political subdivision of Imperial Russia or of a republic in the U.S.S.R’. Ex.: ‘ST Peterburg and Leningrad Oblast Inwestment Laws – Update’. Main Entry: paulownia Function: noun Etymology: New Latin, from Anna Pavlovna died 1865 Russian princess. Date: 1843: ‘any of a genus (Paulownia) of Chinese trees of the snapdragon family; especially: one (P. tomentosa) widely cultivated for its panicles of fragrant violet flowers’ [33]. Ex.: Advance Investments says paulownia trees originated in East Asia and are cultivated in Australia and the United States. Main Entry: perestroika Function: noun. Etymology: Russian perestroika, literally, ‘restructuring’. Date: 1986: t’he policy of economic and governmental reform instituted by Mikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union during the mid-1980s’. Ex.: What many fail to realize is that the policies of Glasnost-Perestroika …are rooted in and derive sustenance from Marxist-Leninist ideology . pirozhki VARIANT FORMS: also piroshki; PLURAL NOUN: ‘Small Russian pastries filled with finely chopped meat or vegetables, baked or fried’. ETYMOLOGY: ‘Russian, pl. of pirozhok, diminutive of pirog, dumpling’ [34]. Ex.: The event itself features traditional Russian cuisine such as pirojki, borsch, and blini. Main Entry: podzol Variant(s): also podsol. Function: noun. Etymology: Russian. Date: 1908: ‘any of a group of zonal soils that develop in a moist climate especially under coniferous or mixed forest and have an organic mat and a thin organic-mineral layer above a light gray leached layer resting on a dark illuvial horizon enriched with amorphous clay’ – podzolic adjective [33]. Ex.: Podzol. A zonal soil that occurs in the taiga or boreal forest regions of the world, where winters are cold, summers are relatively short, and the yearly rainfall between 500 and 800 mm… Politburo noun: Inflected forms: pl. politburos. ‘The chief political and executive committee of a Communist party.’ Etymology: Russian, contraction of Polit(icheskoe) Byuro, ‘political bureau’. Ex.: In instituting these reforms Gorbachev, the Politburo…did not depart from basic tenets of Marxist-Leninist ideology. Main Entry: polynya Function: noun. Inflected Form(s): plural polynyas also polynyi . Etymology: Russian polyn’ya. Date: 1853: ‘an area of open water in sea ice’. Ex.: Coastal polynyas characteristically lie just beyond landfast ice…( Encyclopedia Britannica) Main Entry: pood Function: noun. Etymology: Russian pud, from Old Russian, from Old Norse pund ‘pound’ -- more at POUND. Date: 1554: ‘a Russian unit of weight equal to about 36.11 pounds (16.38 kilograms). Ex.: I can fully military press a 1.5 pood kettlebell but I cannot press a 2 pood KB Main Entry:ruble variant forms: also rouble NOUN: See table at currency. Etymology: Russian rubl’, from Old Russian rubl, ‘cut,’ ‘piece’ (probably originally a piece cut from a silver bar), from rubiti, ‘to chop’, ‘hew’ [34]. Ex.: The conversion of billions of dollars into rubles has expanded the domestic supply of base money . Main Entry: samarskite NOUN: A velvet-black mineral that is a complex mixture of several rare-earth metals with niobium and tantalum oxide. Etymology: After Col. M. von Samarski, 19th-century Russian mining official. Ex.: The remaining minerals are listing according the group to which they belong…OXIDES: cerianite, chlorite, fourmarierite, hornblende…microlite, rutile, samarskite-(Y)… Main Entry: samizdat Function: noun. Etymology: Russian, from sam- self- + izdatel’stvo ‘publishing house’. Date: 1967: ‘a system in the U.S.S.R. and countries within its orbit by which government-suppressed literature was clandestinely printed and distributed; also: such literature.’ Ex.: The catalogue begins with the legendary forefather of samizdat …Nikolai Glazkov, and continues with the Liyanozovo poets Evgenii Kropivnitskii, Vsevolod Nekrasov, Igor’ Kholin, and Genrikh Sapgir. Samovar NOUN: ‘A metal urn with a spigot, used to boil water for tea and traditionally having a chimney and heated by coals.’ ETYMOLOGY: Russian: samo, self; see sem-1 in Appendix I + varit’, ‘to boil’. Ex.: The first samovars are thought to have been used for preparing tisanes of herbs, and only later became almost exclusively used for tea Main Entry: Samoyed Variant(s): also Samoyede Function: noun. Etymology: Russian samoed Date: 1589. 1: ‘a member of any of a group of peoples inhabiting the far north of European Russia and parts of northwestern Siberia’. 2: ‘the family of Uralic languages spoken by the Samoyed people’. 3: ‘any of a Siberian breed of medium-sized white or cream-colored sled dogs’. – Samoyed adjective – Samoyedic adjective [33] Ex.: The Samoyed people lived a seminomadic life as reindeer herders. This language group includes Finnish, Lapp, Estonian, Magyar (Hungarian) and Samoyed. Though the Samoyed may look to some like an overgrown stuffed toy, this is a rugged working breed Main Entry: sastruga VARIANT FORMS: also zastruga ( z-strg, zä-) NOUN: Inflected forms: pl. sastrugi (-g) ‘A long wavelike ridge of snow, formed by the wind and found on the polar plains.’ ETYMOLOGY: Russian dialectal zastruga: za, ‘beyond’ + struga, ‘deep place into which one may fall’. Ex.: “sastruga,” for instance, refers to a wind-shaped ridge of snow, sort of an elongated snow dune Main Entry: seecatch NOUN: Inflected forms: pl. seecatchie (-kch) ‘The adult male fur seal of Alaska’. ETYMOLOGY: Russian sekach, from sech’, ‘to cut’. Ex.: Seecatch: A Story of a Fur Sale. Main Entry: sierozem Function: noun. Etymology: Russian serozem, from seryi ‘gray’ + zemlya ‘earth’; akin to Latin humus ‘earth’ -- more at HUMBLE. Date: 1934: ‘any of a group of zonal soils brownish gray at the surface and lighter below, based in a carbonate or hardpan layer, and characteristic of temperate to cool arid regions.’. Ex.: To these soils belong mountain - forestry, where loss formed 16,5% and meadow-serozem. Main Entry: soviet Function: noun. Etymology: Russian sovet ‘council’, ‘soviet’. Date: 1917. 1: ‘an elected governmental council in a Communist country’. 2 plural, capitalized a: BOLSHEVIKS b: ‘the people and especially the political and military leaders of the U.S.S.R.’ – soviet adjective, often capitalized – soviet·-ism noun, often capitalized. Ex.: Soviets and Factory Committees in the Russian Revolution. The Soviets thus proved that life in space was possible. Main Entry: sovkhoz Function: noun. Inflected Form(s): plural sovkhozy or sovkhozes. Etymology: Russian, short for sovetskoe khozyaistvo ‘soviet far’. Date: 1921: ‘a state-owned farm of the U.S.S.R. paying wages to the workers’. Ex.: The sovkhoz-state farm-in Butrimonys gave her an apartment and work. Main Entry: sputnik Function: noun. Etymology: Russian, literally, ‘traveling companion’, from s, so ‘with’ + put’ ‘path’. Date: 1957: ‘a manufactured object or vehicle intended to orbit the earth, the moon, or another celestial body’. Ex.: Recently declassified documents reveal that it would be difficult to overstate the impact of the Soviet’s launch of Sputnik on the U.S. space program Main Entry: starets NOUN: Inflected forms: pl. startsy ( stärts) ‘A spiritual adviser, often a monk or religious hermit, in the Eastern Orthodox Church.’ ETYMOLOGY: ‘Russian, elder’, starets, from Old Church Slavonic starts, ‘elder’, from star, ‘old’. Ex.: “Do you want to hear what the special method of praying was that the starets told him about?” she asked. Main Entry: stishovite NOUN: ‘A dense tetragonal polymorph of quartz that is formed under great pressure and is often associated with meteoroid impact.’ ETYMOLOGY: After Sergei Mikhailovich Stishov (born 1937), Russian mineralogist. Ex.: If there is an additional amount of pure silica, in the high-pressure form of quartz known as SiO2 stishovite, the seismic velocities will be faster. Main Entry: sterlet NOUN: A sturgeon (Acipenser ruthenus) of the Black and Caspian seas, used as a source of caviar. ETYMOLOGY: Russian sterlyad’, from Old Russian sterlyagi, of Germanic origin. (Ex.: Sterlets are true sturgeons, a primitive group of fishes. Main Entry: taiga Function: noun. Etymology: Russian taiga. Date: 1888: ‘a moist subarctic forest dominated by conifers (as spruce and fir) that begins where the tundra ends.’ [33]. Ex.: ‘Canadian indigenous groups have announced their support for the Taiga Rescue Network (TRN), a new global network dedicated to protecting forests outside the tropics…’ Main Entry: theremin Function: noun. Etymology: Lev Theremin born 1896 Russian engineer & inventor. Date: 1927: ‘a purely melodic electronic musical instrument typically played by moving a hand between two projecting electrodes.’ Ex.: Percy Grainger’s Free Music #1 (1936) is an intriguing experiment scored for four theremins emphasizing the free tonality of the instruments. Main Entry: tovarich Variant(s): or tovarish Function: noun. Etymology: Russian tovarishch. Date: circa 1917: COMRADE. Ex.: From a letter to Tovarich, 1957 (an imaginary Russian friend). Main Entry: troika Function: noun. Etymology: Russian troika, from troe ‘three’; akin to Old English †rıe ‘three’. Date: 1842. 1: ‘a Russian vehicle drawn by three horses abreast; also : a team for such a vehicle.’ 2: ‘a group of three’; especially: ‘an administrative or ruling body of three.’ Nikita Krushchev presented Cyrus Eaton with a troika - a Russian vehicle driven by a team of three horses. ‘Is Political Troika In Russia’s Future?’ Main Entry: verst Function: noun. Etymology: French verste & German Werst; both from Russian versta; akin to Latin vertere ‘to turn’. Date: 1555: ‘a Russian unit of distance equal to 0.6629 miles (1.067 kilometers).’ Ex.: Besides, the mountain is about two versts … in length. Main Entry: vodka Function: noun. Etymology: Russian, from voda ‘water’; akin to Old English wäter ‘water’. Date: circa 1803: ‘a colorless liquor of neutral spirits distilled from a mash (as of rye or wheat)’. Ex.: And there is rice-growing in China, consequently they drink rice vodka. Main Entry: zemstvo Function: noun. Inflected Form(s): plural zemstvos. Etymology: Russian; akin to Russian zemlya ‘earth’, ‘land’, Latin humus -- more at HUMBLE. Date: 1865: ‘one of the district and provincial assemblies established in Russia in 1864)’. Ex.: The district zemstvos elected executive committees and delegates to the provincial assemblies…

2.2 Similarities and differences in lexicographic description. Most of these works of reference are not ‘historical’ in the strict sense of the word, but the whole lexicographic corpus provided me with a valuable diachronic perspective. Regrettably, since Johnson’s dictionary includes only three broadly interpreted Russian words (czar, czarina, voivode), it has not been referred to. From the dictionaries we excerpted over 70 words of Russian origin, and compared to linguists’ low estimates this figure is indeed amazing. The most striking of our findings is, however, that the treatment of the same headwords in different dictionaries is not at all consistent. It is worthy of mention that selecting Russianisms from the dictionaries was not an easy task. As will be shown, word origins are often described vaguely, so the entries had to be examined very carefully. Even the OED2, an unparalleled authority in terms of scholarly etymologies, had to be treated with caution, because a comparison of all the dictionaries showed that the routes did not always overlap. The selection of Russian words included several phases. From the above-mentioned dictionaries, some of which are now available in the electronic form and are thus easily searchable (the dictionaries that had to be literally ‘read’ page by page were Webster’s 2, the OEDA and the BDNW), we excerpted headwords either etymologized as Russianisms (or Sovietisms) or defined in relation to Russia (or the Soviet Union). Next, we compared the lists of words and excluded calques (e.g., five-year plan), loanblends (e.g., refusenik or Gorbymania) and semantic borrowings (e.g., pioneer). Further criteria allowed me to leave out, for instance, specific technical terms (e.g. achtaragdite or uvarovite), toponyms (e.g., Kursk or Scherbakov) and proper nouns in the attributive position (e.g., Molotov cocktail or Stanislavsky technique). Then, to revise the etymologies of the remaining words, we worked with primary and secondary sources in English and Russian, of which the latter included Dal’’s and Vasmer’s dictionaries. At this stage, indirect borrowings (e.g., Kremlin or tsarina) and etymologically irrelevant lexical items (e.g., britska or mazurka) were dropped. Finally, problematic words, for which no clear evidence was found, were taken at face value; in other words, their cultural identity was treated as a predominant factor. Cosmonaut, perceived here as a borrowing of Russ. kosmonavt, is perhaps the most conspicuous case. It has to be kept in mind, however, that every etymology presupposes a varying margin of error [32]. One might wonder why the historical perspective is so unclear. There are several reasons for this situation, primarily imperfect methods of early dictionary making (amateurish etymologizing), the complexities of Anglo-Russian language contact (communication filtered through other languages, mainly Latin, German and French), and formal affinities between Slavic languages (similarities not only between East Slavic languages, but also between their South and West Slavic cousins). As a result, discrepancies in the lexicographic description of the borrowings occur in most elements of the dictionary entry—etymology, spelling, pronunciation, and definition—but they are particularly visible 125 in the etymological references [30]. In this context, it should not be surprising that for several loanwords, such as caftan, shaman, pogrom or tsar, controversies continue to this day. The treatment of Russianisms will thus be analysed in four general areas: etymology, spelling, definition, and lexical coverage. Because of the differences in the pronunciation systems applied by British dictionaries (International Pronunciation Alphabet) and their American counterparts (the respelling system), this feature will not be discussed here. Moreover, for reasons of brevity, the dictionary entries quoted have sometimes been slightly simplified. Where necessary, Russian words have been transliterated into English according to the ISO transliteration standards. ISO symbols include, for instance, ж = ž, ц = c, ч = č, ш = š, щ = šč, я = ja, ю = ju, ё = ë, and x = ch. Still, the system of transliteration used in the dictionary entries has not been modified.

2.3. Contrasting Dictionary Entries: etymology, spelling, definition and lexical coverage.
Etymology
Words spread through a chain of borrowings, hence it is important to specify which of the languages involved should be treated as the donor one [33]. We distinguish three sources of borrowings: genetic (or ultimate), primary historical (or intermediary), and historical (or direct). To illustrate the point, for the English word saffian, Russian is the direct source, Romanian is its primary historical source, and Turkish or Persian is its ultimate source (based on the OED2). We assumed that borrowings imported into English only directly from Russian would be classified as Russianisms proper. Such a framework is important, because etymology is a fundamental basis for the classification of foreign importations, and even tiny methodological discrepancies in the description of word origins may contribute to confusion. Our analysis shows that the ‘decoding’ of etymological routes is far more complicated than was expected. All the samples quoted below come from the Century, but similar etymological references can be found in any other dictionary. Thus, words of Russian origin are treated as:

(1) direct borrowings from Russian, whatever the genetic source; armiak [Russ. armyakŭ, of Tatar origin] 1. A staff woven of camel’s hair by the Tatars. – 2. In Russia, a plain caftan or outer garment made of armiak or a similar material, worn by the peasantry. (2) indirect borrowings, i.e., either the genetic source or one of the primary historical sources; kvass [= F. kvas = G. kevass, < Russ. kvasŭ, a drink so called.] A fermented drink in general use in Russia, taking the place of the beer of other countries. Common kvass is made from an infusion of raised rye flour or dough, or of other flour or baked bread, with malt. Finer kinds are made from apples, raspberries, or other fruit, without malt. (3) words describing European and Asian realia, but not etymologised; sastrugi, n. pl. A term current in Siberia for flutings or little ridges of windblown snow, running parallel with the direction of the air-currents, and now sometimes quoted in English. See zastruga. Rep. Brit. Ass’n Advancement of Sci., 1900, p. 817. (4) words of uncertain origin, i.e., either obscure, unknown or etymologised in a vague way; obarne†, obarni†, n. [Origin obscure.] A beverage associated in texts of the sixteenth century with meath and mead, and in one case mentioned as a variety of mead. araba 1, arba, n. [Also aroba, = Bulg. araba, Russ. arba, < Hind. Pers. arāba, Turk. Ar. ‘arabah, a cart, wheeled vehicle.] A heavy, springless wagon, usually covered with a screen as shelter from the rays of the sun, drawn by oxen or cows, and used throughout north-western and central Asia, India, Turkey, and Russia, wherever Tatars have settled. (5) words derived from a historical source different from Russian; yurt, n. [Siberian.] One of the houses or huts, whether permanent or movable, of the natives of 126 northern and central Asia. Also yourta, yourte, jurt.

Many headwords are derived, either directly or indirectly, from Russian, but this is not always the case. Some words, such as aoul, araba, barchan, caftan, dzeren, kefir, knez, sarlak, shaman, shor, tarpan, verst, or voivode, are almost notorious for having non-Russian etymologies, because usually only one out of five dictionaries indicates their Russian origin. Other borrowings, such as balagan, barukhzy, baidar, carlock, chum, corsac, dolina, gley, iconostas, Kalmuck, Katyusha, kendir, koumiss,olen, pogrom, rendzina, starost or zubr, show an equal degree of variability, i.e., the Russian and non-Russian etymologies are found in roughly the same number of dictionaries. The etymology sections can also be compared in terms of the detail of description. For instance, while Webster’s 1 and 3 provide the Russian etymon in most entries, a majority of Russian etyma in Webster’s 2 are lacking. By contrast, the Century and the OED2 give detailed histories of the words, documenting the whole process of borrowing and the ultimate source of the loanwords, yet only the OED2 provides succinct information on alternative etymological hypotheses and can guide users to the literature of the subject. Example (6) below illustrates etymologies for the entry-word boyar.

(6) Webster’s 1 boyar [Russ. boiarin’] Webster’s 2 boyar [Russ.] Webster’s 3 boyar [Russian boyarin, from Old Russian, from Old Slavic boljarinŭ, probably from Old Turkish boila] Century boyar [< Russ. boyarinŭ, pl. boyare, formerly bolyarinŭ = Bulg. bolerin = Serv. bolyar = Pol. bojar (> Turk. boyar = Hung. bojár = Lith. bajoras = MGr. βοϊλ______0δι, βολι0δαι, etc.), < OBulg. boljarinŭ, appar. < boliy, great, illustrious.] OED2 boyar [a. Russ. boyárin, pl. boyáre ‘grandee, lord’:–earlier bolyárin, prob. f. OSlav. root bol- great; but Miklosich would connect it with Turkish boj stature, boijlu high; Dahl, and others, with Russ. boi ‘war’, which may have influenced the later form. The word occurs in Byzantine Greek as βοϊλ0δαι, βολι0δαι; Bulg. bolerin, Serb. bolyar, Roman. boiér.]

It is obvious, however, that the lexicographic description depends largely on the criteria adopted by etymologists, so it is definitely genre-oriented. The OED2, as an historical dictionary, will thus include more exhaustive etymological information than a general monolingual dictionary [33].
Spelling
Russianisms occur in a range of orthographic variants, and most spellings are, as a rule, recorded in the OED2. The other dictionaries, primarily the Century, Webster’s 2 and Webster’s 3, also document a number of alternative spelling forms. In doing so, they sometimes show the influence of languages other than Russian, mainly Latin, German and French, though it is impossible to tell whether the given words were borrowed from those languages, or merely spelled under their influence. For instance, many members of Russian high society in the 19th century were bilingual in Russian and French. (See e.g. duma / douma; knout / knut; Doukhobor / Dukhobor; kulak / koulak.) According to Leeming, the unsettled state of the 16th century English orthography may be to some extent responsible for problems with the interpretation of textual material. Different spelling variants may be treated as different entry-words, which are either defined, glossed or left undefined, as the entries from the Century show below.

(7) berkovets, n. [Russ. berkovetsŭ.] A Russian weight, legally equal to 400 Russian pounds, or 361 pounds 2 ounces avoirdupois. In other parts of Russia, where older pounds have not gone out of use, the value of this unit is somewhat greater. Also bercowetz. bercowetz, n. See berkovets. berkowitz, n. [G. berkowitz, repr. Russ. berkovetsŭ.] Same as berkovets.

There are also words (e.g., ataman, ispravnik, kibitka, samovar or taiga) recorded in only one distinct form, which requires some explanation. The answer is relatively simple. Russian loans taken into English had to be transliterated from the Cyrillic alphabet into the Latin one, which inevitably involved certain problems. Sometimes, in the case of borrowing through speech, the words tended to be transcribed rather than transliterated; and the first words taken into English, such as kvass, tsar, rouble, moujik, kumiss, etc., were probably imported in that way. Whichever method was adopted, however, it often resulted in idiosyncrasies in spelling. Vowels were usually rendered in a more or less faithful form, though there were exceptions to this rule, as in barabara (Russ. dialectal barabora), barometz / boramez (Russ. baranec), knez / kniaz / knyaz (Russ. knjaz’), or sterlet / sterledey (Russ. sterljad’). By contrast, Russian consonants were expressed by strings of characters which were entirely alien to the English spelling system. The most problematic Russian consonants were [c], [ž], [č], [š], [šč] and [ch], and they usually account for the array of awkward spellings, as example (8) illustrates below.

(8) Russ. Car [c] Eng. ksar, tsar, czar, tzar Russ. Pirožki [ž] Eng. piroshki, pirotchki, pirozhki, pyrochki Russ. černozëm [č] Eng. chernozem, tchernozem, tschernozem Russ. Aršin [š] Eng. arsheen, arshine, archine, arshin, archin Russ. boršč [šč] Eng. borsch, borscht, borsht, bortsch, borshch Russ. Barchans [ch] Eng. barchan, barchane, barkhan

A few examples taken from all the dictionaries will show the variability in spelling more exhaustively. It has been observed that Webster’s 1 includes few variants, whereas the OED2 has most of them; the record is set by koumiss, which has 14 alternative spelling forms. The way in which more recent Russian borrowings are spelled is more consistent, but irregularities can also be found. For example, the OEDA record such variants as matryoshka / matrioshka / matreshka and niet / nyet; while in the BDNW we can find karakteristika / kharakterstika and sulfazin / sulphazin. Sometimes, dictionaries include different orthographic variants as the main entry-words. The dissimilarity in form varies from negligible (agit-prop in the OED2 / agitprop in Webster’s 3; polynya in the OED2 / polynia in Webster’s 1) to fairly significant sseter in the OED2 / osetra in Webster’s 3; daggett in the OED2 / degote in the Century). Moreover, there are also morphological concerns. Russian loanwords, nearly all of which are nouns, were occasionally recorded in the plural form. Such collective nouns occur either with the Russianised inflectional ending (Dukhobortsy, Khlysti, Staroobradsi, Starovertsi), the typical English ending (Dukhobors, Dukhoborts), or both (starover, Pl. starovers, starovery). For entry-words in the singular, plural forms are sometimes indicated, for instance bezpopovets, pl. bezpopovtsy (Webster’s 2 and 3); chervonets, pl. chervontsy (the OED2, Webster’s 2 and 3); holluschik, pl. holluschickie (the Century, Webster’s 2 and 3); kromeski, pl. kromeskies / kromeskys (Webster’s 2) and kromeskis (Webster’s 3) or zemstvo, pl. zemstvos (Webster’s 2) and zemstva (the OED2).

Definition In this section only selected issues will be touched upon, because a comprehensive treatment of all the definitions would not be feasible. Some of the early borrowings seem to have been defined on the basis of the same textual sources; hence there are very few differences between the OED2 and the American dictionaries. It seems that the newer the word is, the more divergent the definitions provided by the lexicographers are. In example (9), three definitions of verst, a culture-specific term, show the similarity in the defining style.

(9) OED2 verst, A Russian measure of length equal to 3500 English feet or about two thirds of an English mile. Webster’s 1 Verst, A Russian measure of length containing 3,500 English feet. Century verst, A Russian measure of length, containing 3,500 English feet, or very nearly two thirds of an English mile, and somewhat more than a kilometer.

In other cases, the definitions are fairly divergent, which refers not only to the wording of the text, but also to the division of meaning into senses. The use of typographical devices is of secondary importance, because it reflects mainly the dictionary format, i.e., printed or electronic. Corresponding entries from all the dictionaries are compared in example [30].

(10) OED2 Samoyed, A. 1. One of Mongolian race inhabiting Siberia. 2. Also with small initial. A white or buff dog belonging to the breed so called, once used as working dogs in the Arctic, and distinguished by a thick, shaggy coat, stocky build, pricked ears, and a tail curled over the back. Also attrib. B. adj. Of or pertaining to the Samoyeds. Also quasi-n., their language. Century Samoyed, One of a race inhabiting the northern coast of Asia and eastern Europe, and belonging to the Ural-Altaic family. Webster’s 1 Samoyedes, An ignorant and degraded Turanian tribe which occupies a portion of Northern Russia and a part of Siberia. Webster’s 2 Samoyed, 1. One of a Siberian Mongolian people, hunters, and fishers, related to the Finns in type [….] 2. An Arctic dog of a basic breed originating in western Siberia. It has long been used by Samoyeds for herding reindeer and pulling sleds, and may be regarded as one of the oldest of domesticated dogs. Webster’s 3 samoyed, also samoyede 1 plural samoyed or samoyeds capitalized a: a Finno-Asian people of the Nenets district of the Arkhangelsk region of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics scattered along the coasts and islands from the White sea to the 129 Taimyr peninsula—called also Nentsi b: a member of such people 2 also samoyedic -s capitalized a: a group of Uralic languages spoken by the Samoyed people—see URALIC LANGUAGES table b: one of these languages 3 a usually capitalized: a Siberian breed of medium-sized deep-chested white or cream-colored arctic dogs in coat and proportions much resembling the chow chow and long used by the Samoyeds for herding reindeer and pulling sleds b –s often capitalized: a dog of this breed

Dividing meaning into senses, in particular, deserves special attention, because my analysis shows that the lexicographers’ decisions are by no means arbitrary. In other words, meaning discrimination is more concerned with the general lexicographic criteria (e.g., treating different grammatical categories as separate senses become particularly clear when we look at the entries from a diachronic perspective. This is illustrated both by example (10) and (11).

(11) Webster’s 1 Boyar, A member of a Russian aristocratic order abolished by Peter the Great. Also, one of a privileged class in Roumania; English writers sometimes call Russian landed proprietors boyars. Webster’s 2 boyar, A member of a Russian aristocratic order next to the knezes, or ruling princes, and possessed of many exclusive privileges. It was abolished by Peter the Great. Also, one of a privileged landholding class in Rumania; - boyarism, boyardism → English writers sometimes erroneously use boyar for any Russian landed proprietor. Webster’s 3 boyar, 1: a member of a Russian aristocratic order that was next in rank to the ruling princes and was possessed of many exclusive privileges until its abolition by Peter the Great; 2: a member of a privileged landholding class in Romania.

Sometimes there are considerable differences in the length and use of descriptive details. One of the most interesting cases is the word Raskolnik, whose meaning has been explained as follows:
(12) OED2 Raskolnik, A dissenter from the national Church in Russia. Century Raskolnik, In Russia, a schismatic; a dissenter. There are many sects of Raskolniks, most of them differing from the Orthodox Church by even greater conservatism in ritual, etc. Some sects retain the office of priest, while others are Presbyterian or Independent in polity; others, again, are of wildly fanatical and antinomian character. Webster’s 3 Raskolnik, A dissenter from the Russian Orthodox Church and member of one of the several groups (as the Doukhobors, Khlysty) developing from the schism of the 17th century in protest against liturgical reforms—called also Old Believer, Old Ritualist.

Interestingly, the word was not allowed into Webster’s 1, but it appeared in the 1913 Addenda, in an extremely informative, and fairly encyclopedic, entry (example 13). To my knowledge, this is one of the longest definitions accompanying a Russian loan. (13) Raskolnik n.; pl. Raskolniki or Raskolniks. [Russ. raskol’nik dissenter, fr. raskol dissent.] The name applied by the Russian government to any subject of the Greek faith who dissents from the established church. The Raskolniki embrace many sects, whose common characteristic is a clinging to antique traditions, habits, and customs. The schism originated in 1667 in an ecclesiastical dispute as to the correctness of the translation of the religious books. The dissenters, who have been continually persecuted, are believed to number about 20,000,000, although the Holy Synod officially puts the number at about 2,000,000. They are officially divided into three groups according to the degree of their variance from orthodox beliefs and observances, as follows: I. ‘Most obnoxious’: the Judaizers; the Molokane, who refuse to recognize civil authority or to take oaths; the Dukhobortsy, or Dukhobors, who are communistic, marry without ceremony, and believe that Christ was human, but that his soul reappears at intervals in living men; the Khlysty, who countenance anthropolatory, are ascetics, practice continual self-flagellation, and reject marriage; the Skoptsy, who practice castration; and a section of the Bezpopovtsy, or priestless sect, which disbelieve in prayers for the Czar and in marriage. II. ‘Obnoxious’: the Bezpopovtsy, who pray for the Czar and recognize marriage. III. ‘Least obnoxious’: the Popovtsy, who dissent from the orthodox church in minor points only. Two more entries, kromesky and Skoptsi, are worth mentioning here. It has been claimed that most definitions in the OED2 and Webster’s dictionaries were worded on the basis of gathered quotations. (See e.g. Willinsky 1994, Morton 1994.) However, in Webster’s 2 the headword kromesky is not supported by any quotations, and none of the citations in the OED2 illustrate the need to roll kromesky in ‘calf’s udder’. Interestingly, this quaint detail was deleted in the revision process for ebster’s 3.
(14) OED2 kromesky, A kind of croquette wrapped in bacon and calf’s udder, dipped in butter, and fried. Webster’s 2 kromeski, A kind of croquette wrapped in bacon and calf’s udder, dipped in batter, and fried. Webster’s 3 kromeski, A croquette wrapped in bacon, dipped in batter, and fried.

As to Skoptsi, Webster’s 2 offers a brief definition, which needs cross-referencing with the entryword Raskolniki. By contrast, the definition in Webster’s 3 is independent, but the word is referred to somewhat vaguely as a sect highlighting ‘sexual abstinence’ (example 15). In fact, sexual abstinence derived from the fact that many members of the sect, both men and women, had their genital organs removed. To avoid such shocking expressions lexicographers apparently turned to a less explicit, but also less offensive, euphemism.

(15) OED2 Skoptsi, An ascetic Russian Christian sect, known since the eighteenth century and now forbidden, given to self-mutilation. Webster’s 2 Skopets, pl. Skoptsy, One of a sect of the Raskolniki. Webster’s 3 Skoptsy, Members of an ascetic religious sect of dissenters from the Russian Orthodox Church dating prob. from the 18th century and stressing sexual abstinence.
Lexical Coverage Coverage in this paper refers to the scope of Russianisms that can be found in each dictionary. The number of entries in the OED2, encompassing both main and run-on entries, is cited after Weiner. It is different from figures mentioned by Willinsky, which illustrates ubiquitous problems with counting dictionary entries [33]. Speaking of the coverage of the OED2, Curzan claims that ‘the OED successfully achieves its goal of immense comprehensiveness. It includes almost all words that appear in the general dictionaries both preceding it and coinciding with it, and it treats these words in a more detailed fashion. The lexical area where these dictionaries and the OED do not overlap is small indeed’ [34]. However, our study shows that some discrepancies do exist. The OED2 records 365 words of Russian origin, including items etymologized incorrectly (e.g., barchan, caftan, knez, shaman or voivode), which means that it does not include over 170 Russianisms recorded in the other dictionaries, of which 35 appear exclusively in the Century. Still, unlike the other dictionaries, the OED2 supports each loanword with a range of illustrative quotations to show its currency in the language. As has been mentioned, we consulted also the OEDA for some newer loans. However, few out of 21 Russianisms are recent importations, while most of them, e.g., druzhina (1879), Gulag (1946), Lubyanka (1938), niet (1925) or Zemsky Sobor (1902), are words overlooked in the compilation of the OED2. The Century includes 181 Russian loans, which are sometimes accompanied by erroneous etymologies, but the definitions are helpful and consistent. Out of this group, 35 words, including such apparently rare borrowings as aska, baliki, grivna, kobza, lesiy, oboz or rusalka, cannot be found in any other dictionary in my corpus. Regrettably, these borrowings are not supported by any quotations, so it is hard to say whether the lexicographers had adequate textual evidence. On the other hand, the entury does not include a few easily recognisable Russianisms, such as blin (1889), isba (1784), karakul (1853), nagaika (1842), Russki (1858) or sevruga (1591). Several Russian-derived words (e.g., kibitka, nerka, ruble, samovar or telega) are accompanied by pictorial illustrations. Webster’s 1 records 90 words of Russian borrowings, though some are mis-etymologised. This is the case of caftan (Turkic), protopope (Greek), shaman (Tungus) or ukase (French). This group also includes such words as britska, czarina or Kremlin, here derived from Russian, which cannot be treated as an etymologically proven fact. Webster’s 1 admits into its pages three ephemeral words, i.e., mykiss, nerka and opolchenie, which are not found in the subsequent editions. Webster’s 2 is the largest dictionary of English and, because of its immense coverage of both current as well as obsolete words, was for years regarded by many—even after the appearance of the third edition in 1961—as the dictionary par excellence. There are 291 words of Russian provenience in it, and the number visibly surpasses that of Webster’s 1, which should not be surprising. On the one hand, the 1917 revolution and World War I drew public attention, which nearly intensified the borrowing from Russian into English. On the other hand, the dictionary followed less restrictive inclusion criteria, so a number of hapax legomena (e.g., chort, izvozchik, korova or molka) were allowed into its wordlist. Moreover, several words in Webster’s 2 have brand-new etymologies (caftan, Calmucks, liman, parka) or slightly modified forms, e.g., Dukhoborts (Dukhobors in Webster’s 1), Ivan (Ivan Ivanovitch in Webster’s 1) or plet (plitt in Webster’s 1). The purpose of Webster’s 3 was to record the standard English vocabulary of predominantly the 20th century, so all items that had gone out of use by the mid-18th century were dropped. The dictionary, in Quirk’s words ‘a meticulously complete register of English vocabulary’, comprised approximately 450,000 entries in a single volume [32]. It comes as a surprise that Russian borrowings recorded in Webster’s 3 are as numerous as in Webster’s 2, even though the Soviet Union, with all the intricacies of its political and social system, aroused great interest in the American media. However, though the figures are almost the same, there are considerable differences in the selection of entries, because a number of outdated words (e.g., besprizorni, garnetz, nefte or sotnia) were left out, while new borrowings (e.g., apparatchik, chum, makhorka or shashlik) were included in the revision process for Webster’s 3. Interestingly, some of the newcomers (e.g., blin, chinovnik, gusli or kovsh) are by no means new, since they were attested in English texts as early as the 19th century. Three loans which appeared in Webster’s 1 but not in Webster’s 2, i.e., Molokane, osseter and polynia, were readmitted into Webster’s 3 (as Molokan, osetra and polynya, respectively). Three volumes of the BDNW, which to some extent supplement Webster’s 3, comprise 34 different Russian loanwords. Scientific and technical terms (kalashnikov, katyusha, Lunokhod, Planetokhod, tokamak) as well as Sovietisms (gulag, karakteristika, psikhushka, zek) are the most numerous types of these Russianisms.

CONCLUSION To sum up, we looked at Russian borrowings recorded in monolingual dictionaries of English to check what treatment they were given. Our research shows that the group of Russian borrowings encompasses 70 items, which show both similarities and differences in lexicographic description, but it is differences that are more interesting. The discrepancies characterize practically every aspect of a dictionary entry, such as spelling, pronunciation, grammatical information, etymology, use of labels and tags, defining style, division of meaning into senses or use of illustrative quotations. To present our findings briefly but consistently, we subsumed them under the four general headings of etymology, spelling, definition and lexical coverage. Russian borrowings developed their meanings in a variety of ways. Many words have new meanings in English and they do not denote only Russian phenomena anymore. Taking into account the analyzed facts it is not possible to agree with the opinion that the Russian borrowings are few and that they denote only Russian phenomena and are not naturalized. Unfortunately, the very restricted character of this work makes it impossible to analyze all Russian words borrowed into English and their morphologic and semantic features. However, the analyzed facts are enough to understand the character of the development of the Russian borrowings in English. All Russian words chosen for analysis from dictionaries are nouns. Among them there are both proper and common nouns. There are also some common nouns that converted from proper nouns. The majority of the nouns analyzed have -s as the plural suffix just like most English nouns. However, there are also nouns that have two endings: the Russian -i/y ending and the English -s ending. Some words have only the Russian plural ending. Among words borrowed from Russian there are also terms which originally belonged to other languages. Russian borrowings belong to a variety of the thematic groups, which can be explained by the fact that contacts between the two countries covered various aspects of life. We would like to conclude our investigation with proposal to study Kazakh, Russian and English borrowings thoroughly, because most of our students are able to compare these language and find similarities and differences. The results confirm that English is a very open language with regards to its acceptance to adopt foreign words into its vocabulary. There has been little resistance against loanwords in Great Britain in comparison to many other European countries. In Great Britain, purist groups, whose ultimate goal is to make a language free of foreign influences, were never as successful as in Germany for example. As a consequence, the English have borrowed words from all kinds of people that they have come in contact with over the years. People of different cultures have always indicated with each other, and there has always been an exchange of lexics due to this interaction. Loanwords enrich a language, since the vocabulary gets larger and each word therefore acquires a more specific and subtle meaning and this should be kept in mind before one simply criticizes and dismisses borrowings.

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APPENDIX 1

1. THE LIST OF RUSSIAN BORROWINGS IN MODERN ENGLISH LANGUAGE

16th century arsheen – мера длины, равная 0,71 м boyar – крупный землевладелец, принадлежавший к высшему слою господствующего класса copeck – мелкая монета, сотая доля рубля Kremlin – городская крепость kvass – кисловатый напиток, приготовляемый на воде из хлеба с солодом, а также из ягод, фруктов muzhik – невоспитанный, необразованный крестьянин rouble – основная денежная единица в России, равная 100 копейкам sevruga – крупная промысловая рыба из семейсва осетровых tsar – единственный государь, а также титул монарха verst – мера длины, равная 1,06 км

17th century Cossack – казак, член военно-земледельческой общины вольных поселенцев на окраинах государства, активно участвовавших в защите и расширении государственных границ kibitka – крытая дорожная повозка pood – мера веса, равная 16,3 кг sagene – мера длины, равная трем аршинам (2,13 м) sarafan – женская крестьянская одежда, род платья без рукавов, надеваемого поверх рубашки с длинными рукавами steppe – безлесное, бедное влагой и обычно ровное пространство с травянистой растительностью в зоне сухого климата suslik – небольшое животное из отряда грызунов, а также его мех telega – четырехколесная повозка для перевозки грузов конной тягой tsaritsa – жена царя

18th century balalaika – щипковый струнный мызыкальный инструмент с треугольной декой isba – деревянный крестьянский дом knout – веревка или ремень, прикрепленные к палке и служащие для понукания животного, а также для телесных наказаний to knout – бить кнутом Raskolnik – последователь религиозно-общественного движения, возникшего в России в XVII веке, направленного против официальной церкви shuba – верхняя зимняя одежда на меху tsarevich – сын царя ukase – постановление верховного органа власти, имеющее силу закона yurt – переносное, конусообразной формы жилище у некоторых кочевых народов Азии и Южной Сибири

19th century artel – основная форма социалистического производственного объединения граждан для ведения коллективного хозяйство на базе обобществления средств производства ataman – название предводителя в казачьих областях blin – тонкая лепешка из жидкого теста, испеченная на сковороде bortsch – суп со свеклой и другими овощами chernozem – плодородная перегнойная почва темного цвета Cadet – члена буржуазной конституционно-демократической партии dacha – загородный дом, обычно для летнего отдыха Decembrist – участник дворянского революционно-освободительного движения, завершившегося восстанием 14 декабря 1825 года droshky – легкий экипаж druzhina – в царской армии: войсковая часть, соответствовавшая полку duma – название государственного учреждения fieldsher – помощник врача со средним медицинским образованием karakul – ценные шкурки новорожденных каракульских ягнят kasha – кушанье из сваренной крупы kulak – богатый крестьянин-собственник, эксплуатирующий батраков, бедняков kurgan – холм mazut – нефтяные маслянистые остатки, получаемые после отгонки из нефти бензина, керосина pirog – печеное изделие из теста с начинкой polynya – незамерзшее или уже растаявшее место на ледяной поверхности водоема raznochinets – samovar – металлический сосуд для кипячения воды с краном и внутренней топкой в виде высокой трубки, наполняемой углями shchy – суп из капусты starover – человек, придерживающийся старых мнений, старых привычек taiga – дикий, труднопроходимый лес на севере Европы и Азии tarantas – дорожная четырехколесная повозка на длинных дрогах tchin – служебный разряд у военных и гражданских служащих; чиновник, служащий, представитель какого-либо ведомства troika – упряжка из трех лошадей tsarevna – дочь царя vodka – крепкий алкогольный напиток zakuska – кушанье, которым закусывают при употреблении спиртных напитков zemstvo – местное самоупрапвление в сельских местностях с преобладанием дворянства в его органах

20th century afganets – горячий сухой южный ветер agitprop – распростроанение в массах и разъяснение устным или письменным путем каких-либо воззрений, идей для политического воспитания масс и привлечения их к активной общественно-политической жизни apparat – совокупность учреждений, обслуживающих какую-либо отрасль управления, хозяйства и партии apparatchik – работник хозяйственного и партийного аппарата babushka – старая женщина; головной платок, косынка Bolshevik – член большевистской партии, коммунист commissar – руководящее лицо с общественно-политическими, административными функциями; политический руководитель воинской части, отвечавший наравне с командиром за ее боеспособность и политическое состояние glasnost – открытость воззрений Gulag – лагерь для военнопленных у немцев в период Второй мировой войны intelligentsia – работники умственного труда, обладающие образованием и специальными знаниями в различных областях науки, техники и культуры jarovisation – процесс обработки семян, ускоряющий их рост и созревание to jarovize – подвергать семена обработке, ускоряющей процесс их роста и созревания kazachoc – народный танец с ускоряющимся темпом kissel – студенистое жидкое кушанье kolkhoz – производственное, социалистического типа, объединение трудящихся крестьян для коллективного ведения сельского хозяйство (из сокращенного выражения «коллективное хозяйство») komsomol – коммунистический союз молодежи kulturny – воспитанный человек lunik – космическая ракета, направленная на Луну lunokhod – автоматический самоходный аппарат, передвигающийся по Луне Menshevik – последователь меньшевизма, член антимарксистской партии narod – население государства nekulturny – невоспитанный человек niet - no nitchevo - nothing nomenklatura – работники, персонально назначаемые высшей инстанцией paskha – сладкое кушанье из творога в форме четырехугольной пирамиды, изготовляющееся к весеннему празднику воскресения Христа, иначе кулич pelmeny – кушанье – род маленьких пирожков из пресного теста с мясом, употребляемые в вареном виде perestroika – переустройство Советской экономической и политической системы piroshky – печеные изделия из тонко раскатанного теста с начинкой podzol – неплодородная серовато-белая почва pogrom – выступление против какой-либо национальной или иной группы населения, сопровождающееся разорением, грабежом имущества и массовыми убийствами евреев в начале ХХ века to pogrom – осуществлять погром Politbureau – название руководящей части КПСС Presidium – название руководящего органа собрания, совещания, выборного или научного учреждения prisiadka – присидание с попеременным выбрасыванием ног (о пляске) proletkult – культура народных масс rassolnik – суп, сваренный с солеными огурцами residentura - разведка resident – тайный представитель разведки в каком-либо районе иностранного государства riza – одежда священника для богослужения sambo – спортивная борьба, отличающаяся большим разнообразием специальных приемов ( из сокращенного выражения «самозащита без оружия») samizdat – самостоятельное издательство shashlik – кушанье из кусочков мяса, зажаренных над огнем на вертеле, шампуре skaz – род народно-поэтического повествования smetana – молочный продукт из скисших сливок sobornost – объединение национальной и православной идей solod – продукт из проросших и смолотых зерен хлебных злаков, употребляемый при изготовлении пива, кваса solonchak – почва, содержащая соли solonetz – почва с большим содержанием натрия solyanka – кушанье из тушеной капусты с мясом или рябой Soviet – орган государственной власти в СССР, одна из форм политической организации социалистического общества sovkhoz – социалистическое государственное сельско- хозяйственное предприятие ( из сокращенного выражения «советское хозяйство») sputnik – космический аппарат, с помощью ракетных устройств запускаемый на орбиту в космическое пространство starets – уважаемый и почитаемый старик subbotnik – добровольная коллективная бесплатная работа для выполнения какого-либо общественно полезного трудового задания (по субботам) tolkach – добавочный паровоз в хвосте поезда или самоходное судно, толкающее баржи, а также лоббист в СССР tovarish – обращение к гражданину СССР tvorog – сгустившиеся частицы кислого молока, отжатые от сыворотки ukha – суп из свежей рыбы vobla – небольшая промысловая каспийская рыба, разновидность плотвы vozhd – общепризнанный идейный, политический руководитель zek – заключенный

APPENDIX 2

DISTRIBUTION OF RUSSIANISMS IN OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY 2(1550-2000) [pic] DISTRIBUTION OF RUSSIANISMS IN OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY 2(1900-2000) [pic]