psychology the discipline concerned with behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism's physical state, mental state, and external environment.
critical thinking the ability and willingness to assess claims and make judgments on the basis of well-supported reasons and evidence rather than emotion or anecdote
assumptions beliefs that are taken for granted
bias assumption or beliefs that keeps us from considering the evidence fairly
argument by anecdote generalizing from a personal experience or from a few examples to everyone
phrenology the now-discredited theory that different brain areas account for specific character and personality traits, which can be "read" from bumps on the skull
structuralism an early pyschological approach that emphasized the analysis of immediate experience into basic elements. William Wundt, hoped to analyze sensations, images, and feelings into basic elements. Asked what happened
functionalism an early psychological approach that emphasized the function or purpose and consciousness, emphasized the function or purpose of behavior as opposed to its analysis and description. William James, ask how and why.
psychoanalysis a theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy originally formulated by Sigmund Frued, that emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts
biological perspective a psychological approach that emphasizes bodily events and changes associated with actions, feelings, and thoughts
evolutionary psychology a field of psychology emphasizing evolutionary mechanisms that may help explain human commonalities in cognition, development, emotion, social practices, and other areas of behavior
learning perspective a psychological approach that emphasizes how the environment and experience affect a person's or animal's actions; it includes behaviorism and social-cognitive learning theories
cognitie perspective a psychological approach that emphasizes mental processes in perception, memory, language, problem solving, and other areas of behavior
sociocultural perspective a pyschological approach that emphasizes social and culture influences on behavior
psychodynamic perspective a psychological approach that emphasizes unconscious dynamics within the individual such as inner forces, conflicts, or the movement of instinctual energy
humanist psychology a psychological approach that emphasizes free will, personal growth, resilience, and the achievement of human potential
basic psychology the study of psychological issues in order to seek knowledge for its own sake rather than for its practical application
applied psychology the study of psychological issues that have direct practical significance; also, the application of psychological findings
experimental psychologists conduct laboratory studies of learning, motivation, emotion, sensation and perception, physiology, and congition.
education psychologists study psychological principles that explain learning and search for ways to improve education systems. Their interests range from the application of findings on memory and thinking to the use of rewards to encourage achievement
developmental psychologists study how people grow and change over time physically, mentally, and socially. some specalize in childhood issues; others study adolescence, young adulthood, the middle years, or old age.
industrial/organizational psychologists study behavior in the workplace. they are concerned with group decision making, employee morale, work motivation, productivity, job stress, personal selection, marketing strategies, equipment design, and other issues
psychometric psychologists design and evaluate tests of mental abilities, aptitudes, interests, and personality. Nearly all of us have had first hand experience with one or more of these tests in school, at work, or in the military
counseling psychologists generally help people deal with every day problems of life like test anxiety, family conflicts
school psychologists work with parents, teachers, and students to help student's performance and resolve emotional difficulties
psychotherapist anyone who does any kind of psychoterahpy, "therapist" of one sort or another without having any training at all
psychoanalyst person who practices a form of therapy: psychoanalysis. Must have specialized training and undergo extensive psychoanalysis yourself
psychiatrist medical doctor with three year residency, learn to diagnose and treat mental disorders
LCSW licensed clinical social workers
MFCC marriage, family, and child counselors
theory an organized system of assumptions and principles that purports to explain a specified set of phenomena and their interrelationships
hypothesis a statement that attempts to predict or to account for a set of phenomena; scientific hypotheses specify relationships among events or variables and are empirically tested
operational definition a precise definition of a term in a hypothesis, which specifies the operations for observing and measuring the process or phenomenon being defined
principle of falsifiability the principle that a scientific theory must make predictions that are specific enough toe pose the theory to the possibility of disconfirmation; that is, the theory must predict not only what will happen but also what will not happen
confirmation bias the tendency to look for or pay attention only to information that confirms one's own beliefs
representative sample a group of individuals, selected from a population for study, which matches the population on important characteristics such as age and sex
descriptive methods methods that yield descriptions of behavior but not necessarily casual explanations
case study a detailed description of a particular individual being studied or tested
observational study a study in which the researcher carefully and systematically observes and records behavior without interfering with the behavior; it may involve either naturalistic or laboratory observation
psychological tests procedures used to measure and evaluate personality traits, emotional states, aptitudes, interests, abilities, and values
laboratory observation situation where researchers have more control; a type of setting
standardize in test construction, to develop uniform procedures for giving and scoring a test
norms in test construction, established standards of performance
reliability in test construction, the consistency of scores derived from a test, from one time and place to another
validity the ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure
surveys questionnaires and interviews that ask people directly about their experiences, attitudes, or opinions
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References: Toates, F. (2007). Biological processes and psychological explanation. In D. Miell, A. Phoenix, & K. Thomas (Eds), Mapping Psychology (2nd ed., pp. 225-280). Milton Keynes: The Open University.…
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A perspective means a way of seeing things. Behaviourist is the first approach in this criterion. Behaviourist is the study of human minds, they study behaviour. The behaviourist sees the brain as a black box, this is because as they study animals it is easy to experiment, and they think that humans and animals are similar. The behaviourist wanted to become scientist, which is why they carried out the experiment. Although JB Watson (1887) was the founder of this theorist he studied the work of Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). Pavlov did an experiment once on a dog. The dog salivated every time Pavlov came to the lab with the food. The dog then started associating the time, the bell and the brown coat. This kind of association is called classic conditioning. JB Watson also once experimented on a little boy called Albert. JB Watson taught Albert to have fear of the rats. Albert had a white fluffy rabbit. One day a white rat came pass Albert, but Albert did not seem to be frightened. JB Watson stood behind Albert’s back with metals. Every time the rat went pass JB banged the metals and Albert was startled, JB did this couple of times until Albert was scared of the rat, however Albert was not only scared of the white rat, it was also scared of his white fluffy rabbit as them to animals has the same colour. BF Skinner was also another behaviourist theorist, he did an experiment on a rat in a cage, he put some food on the food pallet for the rat, the rat accidently put its foot on the lever and food came out. So the rat did this few time and knew that if the rat puts the foot on the lever food would come out, this type of experiment was positive reinforcement. On the opposite Skinner experimented on the negative reinforcement. Skinner investigated this by giving the rat a small electric shock whenever it pressed the lever. The consequence of lever pressing was experienced as unpleasant, so the rat learnt to stop pressing the lever.…
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Historically, some of the greatest insights of psychological analysis stemmed from the minds of ordinary men and women. In many respects, most psychodynamic theories come from psychoanalysis studies that have been conducted over the generations. Science has worked meticulously to establish quality and validation to structuralist perspectives; however it was functionalism movement that were more qualitative in nature. Although not directly associated with the movement, psychologists such as Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, and William James made is possible to explain the purpose of the human consciousness. They all wanted to discover a way to improve the quality of the lives of individuals rather than focus on laboratory research; a more direct approach to mapping the mind. Their variations in theory were designed to focus on the foundation of human behaviors and the best way to provide accurate analysis and treatment to those behavior motivators.…
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Toates, F (2007) Biological Processes and Psychological Explanation. In D. Miell, A. Phoenix, & K. Thomas (Eds.), Mapping Psychology (2nd ed., pp. 225-289). Milton Keynes: The Open University…
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The biological perspective is basically is the study of human and animal behaviors, including the nervous system, endocrine system, immune system, and genetics. Psychodynamic perspective basically stems from Freud’s theory, except expanded or mortified by the followers. They believe in the importance of the unconscious influences, early life experiences and interpersonal relationships in explaining an underlying dynamics of behavior or in treating people with psychological problems. The behavioral perspective study how behavior is acquired or learned by environmental causes. Humanistic theory covers motivation of people to grow psychologically, the influence of interpersonal relationships on a self-concept, and the importance of making decisions and self guidance in trying to accomplish ones full potential. Positive perspectives studies positive emotions, and how the emotion can effect one’s mind and body. Cognitive perspective was another version of the behaviorism perspective. They focused on the role of mental processes in how people process things and virtually store them in their minds, it also covers language development, problem solving, and they way we think.…
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