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Mbuti
CENTRAL AFRICAN HUNTER-GATHERER RESEARCH TRADITIONS
Barry S. Hewlett and Jason M. Fancher
Washington State University, Vancouver

For: Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Hunter-Gatherers. Vicki Cummings, Peter Jordan and Marek Zvelebil, eds. Oxford University Press

Biographic information:
Barry Hewlett is Professor of Anthropology at Washington State University, Vancouver. He received a PhD from the University of California, Santa Barbara in 1987 and has had appointments at Tulane University and Oregon State University. He has conducted research in central Africa since 1973 and is the author of Intimate Fathers: The Nature and Context of Aka Pygmy Paternal Infant Care, Hunter-Gatherer Childhoods (edited with Michael Lamb) and Ebola, Culture and Politics: The Anthropology of an Emerging Disease (with Bonnie Hewlett). He has published 35 journal articles or book chapters about Congo Basin foragers.

Jason M. Fancher is a recent graduate of Washington State University’s PhD program in anthropology. His doctoral dissertation is an ethnoarchaeological analysis of animal bone assemblages produced by modern Aka and Bofi foragers of the Central African Republic. Jay’s professional interests include: hunter-gatherer studies, evolutionary ecology, zooarchaeology, vertebrate taphonomy, and sharing anthropological perspectives with non-specialists and the general public.

Indexing names and terms:

Key words: Central Africa, Congo Basin hunter-gatherers, Pygmies, research traditions in Congo Basin hunter-gatherers

Abstract
The largest remaining groups of mobile hunter-gatherers on earth live in Central Africa. More than 350,000 foragers (historically referred to as “Pygmies”) from at least 13 distinct ethnolinguistic groups occupy diverse environments in the Congo Basin. This chapter begins with an overview of these groups, their cultural commonalities, and genetic relationships. Next, we summarize the personal backgrounds and



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NY: Academic Press Curran, B Diamond, J. 1991. Why are pygmies small? Nature 354, 111-112. Dounias, E. 2001. The management of wild yam tubers by the Baka pygmies in southern Cameroon. African Study Monographs, Supplement 26, 135-156. Fancher, J. M. 2009. An ethnoarchaeological analysis of small prey bones produced by forest foragers of the Central African Republic. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Washington State University. Fisher, J. W. 1987. Shadows in the forest: ethnoarchaeology among the Efe pygmies. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley. Fisher, J. W., and Strickland, H. C. 1989. Ethnoarchaeology among Efe pygmies, Zaire: spatial organization of campsites. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 78, 473-484. Fouts, H. N., Hewlett, B. S., and Lamb, M. E. 2001. Weaning and the nature of early childhood interactions among Bofi foragers in central Africa. Human Nature 12, 27-46. Fouts, H. N., Hewlett, B. S., and Lamb, M. E. 2005. Parent-Offspring weaning conflicts among the Bofi farmers and foragers of central Africa. Current Anthropology 46, 29-50. Fürniss, S. 1993. Rigeur et liberte: la polyphonie vocale des pygmees Aka (Centrafrique). In C. Meyer (ed.), Polyphonies de tradition orale. Histoire et traditions vivantes, 101-131. Paris: Creaphis. Giles-Vernick, T. 2002. Cutting the vines of the past: environmental histories of the central African rainforest. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. Grinker, R. R. 1994. Houses in the rainforest: ethnicity and inequality among farmers and foragers in central Africa. Berkeley: University of California Press. Grinker, R.R. 2000. In the arms of Africa: the life of Colin M. Turnbull. New York: Martin’s Press. Harako, R. 1976. The Mbuti as hunters: a study of ecological anthropology of the Mbuti pygmies (I). Kyoto University African Studies 10, 37-99. Hattori, S. 2005. Nature conservation and hunter-gatherers’ life in Cameroonian rainforest. African Study Monographs, Supplement 29, 41-51. Hattori, S. 2006. Utilization of Marantaceae plants by Baka hunter-gatherers in southeastern Cameroon. African Study Monographs, Supplement 33, 29-48. Hayashi, K. 2008. Hunting activities in forest camps among the Baka hunter-gatherers of southeastern Cameroon. African Study Monographs 29, 73-92. Headland, T. N. 1987. The wild yam question: how well could independent hunter-gatherers live in a tropical rain forest ecosystem? Human Ecology 15, 463-491. Headland, T. N., and R. C. Bailey. 1991. Introduction: have hunter-gatherers ever lived in tropical rain forest independently of agriculture? Human Ecology 19, 115-122. Hewlett, B.L. 2005. Vulnerable lives: the experience of death and loss among the Aka and Ngandu adolescents of the Central African Republic. In B. Hewlett and M. Lamb (eds.), Hunter-Gatherer childhoods, 322-342. New Brunswick: Aldine/Transaction. Hewlett, B. S. 1991. Intimate fathers: the nature and context of Aka pygmy paternal infant care. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Hewlett, B. S. 1996. Cultural diversity among African pygmies. In S. Kent (ed.), Cultural diversity among twentieth century foragers: an African perspective, 215-244. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hewlett, B.S., Lamb M.E., Leyendecker, B., and A. Schölmerich. 2000. Internal working models, trust, and sharing among foragers. Current Anthropology 41, 287-297. Hladik, A., and Dounias, E. 1993. Wild yams of the African forest as potential food resources. In C. Hladik (ed.), Tropical forests, people, and food: biocultural interactions and applications to development, 163-176. Paris: UNESCO. Hirasawa, A. 2005. Infant care among the sedentarized Baka hunter-gatherers in southeastern Cameroon. In B. Hewlett and M. Lamb (eds.), Hunter-Gatherer childhoods, 365-384. New Brunswick: Aldine/Transaction. Ichikawa, M. 1978. The residential groups of the Mbuti pygmies. Senri Ethnological Studies 1, 131-188. Ichikawa, M. 1982. The hunters of the forest: the Mbuti pygmies. Kyoto: Jinbuin-Shoin. Ichikawa, M. 1983. An examination of the hunting-dependent life of the Mbuti pygmies, eastern Zaire. African Study Monographs 4, 55-76. Ichikawa, M. 1987. Food restrictions of the Mbuti pygmies, eastern Zaire. African Study Monographs, Supplement 6, 97-121. Ichikawa, M. 1991. The impact of commoditisation on the Mbuti of eastern Zaire. In N. Peterson and T. Matsuyama (eds.), Cash, commoditisation and changing foragers. Senri Ethnological Studies 30, 135-162. Ichikawa, M. 1998. The birds as indicators of the invisible world: ethno-ornithology of the Mbuti hunter-gatherers. African Study Monographs, Supplement 25, 105-121. Ichikawa, M. 2004a. Benefit of foresight: from evolutionary interest to global environmental problems. Before Farming 4, Article 7. Ichikawa, M. 2005. The history and current situation of anthropological studies on Africa in Japan Ichikawa, M. 2006. Problems in the conservation of rainforests in Cameroon. African Study Monographs, Supplement 33, 3-20. Jenike, M. R. 1985. Seasonal changes in Efe foraging behavior examined from the perspective of the diet breadth model. Unpublished B.A. thesis, Harvard-Radcliffe College. Joiris, D. 2003. The framework of central African hunter-gatherers and neighbouring societies. African Study Monographs, Supplement 28, 57-79. Kenrick, J., and Lewis, J. 2001. Discrimination against the forest people (“pygmies”) of central Africa. In S. Chama and M. Jensen (eds.), Racism against indigenous people, 312-325. Copenhagen: IWGIA. Kisliuk, M. 2000. Seize the dance: BaAka musical life and the ethnography of performance. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kitanishi, K. 1994. The exchange of forest products (Irvingia nuts) between the Aka hunter- gatherers and the cultivators in northeastern Congo. Tropics 4, 79-92. Kitanishi, K. 1995. Seasonal changes in the subsistence activities and food intake of the Aka hunter-gatherers in northeastern Congo. African Study Monographs 16, 73-118. Kitanishi, K. 1996. Variability in the subsistence activities and distribution of food among different aged males of the Aka hunter-gatherers in northeastern Congo. African Study Monographs 17, 35-57. Kitanishi, K. 1998. Food sharing among the Aka hunter-gatherers in northeastern Congo. African Study Monographs, Supplement 25, 3-32. Kitanishi, K. 2006. The impact of cash and commoditization on the Baka hunter-gatherer society in southeastern Cameroon. African Study Monographs, Supplement 33, 121-142. Landt, M. J. 2007. Tooth marks and human consumption: mastication research among foragers of the Central African Republic. Journal of Archaeological Science 34, 1629-1640. Lewis, J. 2001. Forest people or village people. Whose voice will be heard? In A. Barnard and J. Kenrick (eds.), Africa’s indigenous peoples: ‘first peoples’ or ‘marginalized minorities’?, 61-78. Edinburgh: Center of African Studies. Lewis, J. 2002. Forest hunter-gatherers and their world: a study of the Mbendjele Yaka pygmies of Congo-Brazzaville and their secular and religious activities and representations. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of London. Lewis, J. 2005. Whose forest is it anyway? Mbendjele Yaka pygmies, the Ndoki Forest, and the wider world. In W. Tadesse and T. Widlock (eds.), Property and equality: encapsulation, commercialisation, discrimination, 56-78. Oxford: Berghahn. Loung, J-F. 1967. Le nom authentique du group pygmee de la region cotiere Camerounaise. Revue de Geographie du Cameroun 7, 81-94. Lupo, K. D., Schmitt, D. N. 2005. Small prey hunting technology and zooarchaeological measures of taxonomic diversity and abundance: ethnoarchaeological evidence from central African forest foragers. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 24, 335-353. Meehan, C. 2005. The effects of maternal locality on alloparental behavior and frequency of caregiving among the Aka foragers of the Central African Republic. Human Nature 16, 58-80. Mercader, J. 2002. Forest people: the role of African rainforests in human evolution and dispersal. Evolutionary Anthropology 11, 117-124. Mercader, J. 2003. Introduction: the Paleolithic settlement of rain forests. In J. Mercader (ed.), Under the canopy: the archaeology of tropical rain forests, 1-31. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. Migliano, A. B., Vinicius, L., and Lahr, M. M. 2007. Life history trade-offs explain the evolution of human pygmies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104, 20216-20219. Motte, E. 1980. A propos des therapeutes pygmees Aka de la region de la Lobaye (Centrafrique). Journal d’Agriculture Tropicale et de Botanique Appliquee 27, 113-132. Motte, E. 1982. Les plantes chez les pygmees Aka et les Monzombo de la Lobaye (Centrafrique): contribution a une etude ethnobotanique comparative chez des chasseurs-cueillers et des pecheurs-cultivateurs dans un meme milieu vegetal. Paris: SELAF. Ngima Mawoung, G. 2006. Perception of hunting, gathering and fishing techniques of the Bakola of the coastal region, southern Cameroon. African Study Monographs Supplement 33, 49-69. Noss, A. J. 2000. Cable snares and nets in the Central African Republic. In J. G. Robinson and E. L. Bennett (eds.), Hunting for sustainability in tropical forests, 282-304. New York: Columbia University Press. Peacock, N. R. 1985. Time allocation, work and fertility among the Efe pygmy women of northeast Zaire. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University. Rupp, S. 2003. Interethnic relations in southeastern Cameroon: challenging the ‘hunter-gatherer’ – ‘farmer’ dichotomy. African Study Monographs, Supplement 28, 37-56. Sato, H. 2001. The potential of edible wild yams and yam-like plants as a staple food resource in the African tropical rain forest. African Study Monographs, Supplement 26, 123-134. Sato, H. 2006. A brief report on a large mountain-top community of Dioscorea praehensilis in the tropical rainforest of southeastern Cameroon. African Study Monographs, Supplement 33, 21-28. Schebesta, P. 1933. Among Congo pygmies. London: Hutchinson and Co.

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