Learning Style
David Kolb's learning styles model and experien6al learning theory (ELT) Having developed the model over many years prior, David Kolb published his learning styles model in 1984. The model gave rise to related terms such as Kolb's experienAal learning theory (ELT), and Kolb's learning styles inventory (LSI). In his publicaAons -‐ notably his 1984 book 'ExperienAal Learning: Experience As The Source Of Learning And Development' Kolb acknowledges the early work on experienAal learning by others in the 1900's, including Rogers, Jung, and Piaget. In turn, Kolb's learning styles model and experienAal learning theory are today acknowledged by academics, teachers, managers and trainers as truly seminal works; fundamental concepts towards our understanding and explaining human learning behaviour, and towards helping others to learn. See also Gardner's MulAple Intelligences and VAK learnings styles models, which assist in understanding and using Kolb's learning styles concepts. In addiAon to personal business interests (Kolb is founder and chairman of Experience Based Learning Systems), David Kolb is sAll (at the Ame I write this, 2005) Professor of OrganizaAonal Development at Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, where he teaches and researches in the fields of learning and development, adult development, experienAal learning, learning style, and notably 'learning focused insAtuAonal development in higher educaAon'. A note about Learning Styles in young people's educa6on Towards the end of the first decade of the 2000s a lobby seems to have grown among certain educaAonalists and educaAonal researchers, which is summarised very briefly as follows: that in terms of substanAal large-‐scale scienAfic research into young people's educaAon, 'Learning Styles' theories, models, instruments, etc., remain largely unproven methodologies. Moreover Learning Styles objectors and opponents assert that heavy relience upon Learning Styles theory in developing and conducAng young people's educaAon, is of quesAonable benefit, and may in some cases be counter-‐producAve.
Despite this, (and this is my personal view, not the view of the 'anA-‐Learning Styles lobby'), many teachers and educators conAnue to find value and benefit by using Learning Styles theory in one way or another, and as oben applies in such situaAons, there is likely to be usage which is appropriate, and other usage which is not. Accordingly -‐ especially if you are working with young people -‐ use systems and methods with care. It is wrong to apply any methodology blindly and unquesAoningly, and wrong not to review and assess effecAveness of methods used.
That said, Learning Styles theories such as Kolb's model and VARK are included on this website for very broad purposes; these materials form a part of a much bigger range of concepts and other content concerning personality, self-‐awareness, self-‐development, and the development of mutual understanding and teams, etc., especially for the use in adult careers, work, business, management, human resources, and commercial training.
Concrete experience/ CE (feeling) Learning from specific experiences and relaAng to people. SensiAve to other's feelings and oben called a “workshop junkies”. This results in conAnually seeking out new experiences. However, having experiences without reflecAon or taking acAon to change means the learning is never consolidated.
Reflec6ve observa6on/ RO (watching) Observing before making a judgment by viewing the environment from different perspecAves. Looks for the meaning of things. This results in avoiding new experiences and avoiding synthesizing conclusions unAl more informaAon is gathered and pondered. At best this results in very slow learning and at worst it sAfles potenAal change.
Abstract conceptualiza6on/ AC (thinking) Logical analysis of ideas and acAng on intellectual understanding of a situaAon. This results in a need to conceptualise and draw intellectual conclusions without adequate reflecAon. Conclusions are oben drawn too quickly and from a theoreAcally standpoint (not drawn from the real learning experiences).
Ac6ve experimenta6on/ AE (doing) Ability to get things done by influencing people and events through acAon. Includes risk-‐taking. This results in “quick wins” and “expediencies” that may prove to be poor soluAons in the long run.
That’s said, a learning style enables learning to be orientated according to the preferred method. Everyone responds to and needs the sAmulus of all types of learning styles to one extent or another -‐ it's a mager of using emphasis that fits best with the given situaAon and a person's learning style preferences. Here are brief descripAons of the four Kolb learning styles: Diverging/ Reflectors Style: feeling and watching (CE/RO) These people are able to look at things from different perspecAves. They are sensiAve. They prefer to watch rather than do, tending to gather informaAon and use imaginaAon to solve problems. They are best at viewing concrete situaAons several different viewpoints. Kolb called this style 'Diverging' because these people perform beger in situaAons that require ideas-‐generaAon, for example, brainstorming. People with a Diverging learning style have broad cultural interests and like to gather informaAon. They are interested in people, tend to be imaginaAve and emoAonal, and tend to be strong in the arts. People with the Diverging style prefer to work in groups, to listen with an open mind and to receive personal feedback.
Assimila6ng/ Theorist Style: watching and thinking (AC/RO) The AssimilaAng learning preference is for a concise, logical approach. Ideas and concepts are more important than people. These people require good clear explanaAon rather than pracAcal opportunity. They excel at understanding wide-‐ranging informaAon and organising it a clear logical format. People with an AssimilaAng learning style are less focused on people and more interested in ideas and abstract concepts. People with this style are more agracted to logically sound theories than approaches based on pracAcal value. These learning style people is important for effecAveness in informaAon and science careers. In formal learning situaAons, people with this style prefer readings, lectures, exploring analyAcal models, and having Ame to think things through.
Converging/Pragma6st Style: doing and thinking (AC/AE) People with a Converging learning style can solve problems and will use their learning to find soluAons to pracAcal issues. They prefer technical tasks, and are less concerned with people and interpersonal aspects. People with a Converging learning style are best at finding pracAcal uses for ideas and theories. They can solve problems and make decisions by finding soluAons to quesAons and problems. People with a Converging learning style are more agracted to technical tasks and problems than social or interpersonal issues. A Converging learning style enables specialist and technology abiliAes. People with a Converging style like to experiment with new ideas, to simulate, and to work with pracAcal applicaAons.
Accommoda6ng/Ac6vist Style: doing and feeling (CE/AE)
The AccommodaAng learning style is 'hands-‐on', and relies on intuiAon rather than logic. These people use other people's analysis, and prefer to take a pracAcal, experienAal approach. They are agracted to new challenges and experiences, and to carrying out plans. They commonly act on 'gut' insAnct rather than logical analysis. People with an AccommodaAng learning style will tend to rely on others for informaAon than carry out their own analysis. This learning style is prevalent and useful in roles requiring acAon and iniAaAve. People with an AccommodaAng learning style prefer to work in teams to complete tasks. They set targets and acAvely work in the field trying different ways to achieve an objecAve.
Below is the learning style of each personality: Ac6vists (AE/CE) Strength: 'Here and now', gregarious, seek challenge and immediate experience, open-‐minded, bored with implementa:on. • Ask: “What would happen if I do this?” • Prefer a hands-‐on, trial-‐and-‐error approach • Are good at learning from specific examples where they are directly involved, and at seeing relaAonships among concepts • Enjoy being involved in new and challenging experiences
Reflectors (CE/RO) Strength: Stand back', gather data, ponder and analyse, delay reaching conclusions, listen before speaking, though?ul. • Ask: “Why?” • Prefer to observe rather than to do • Good at looking at things from different perspecAves • Like to gather informaAon and to reason from concrete specific informaAon • Like to explore what a system has to offer
Theorists (AC/RO) Strength: Think things through in logical steps, assimilate disparate facts into coherent theories, ra:onally objec:ve, reject subjec:vity and flippancy. • Ask: “What is there to know?” • Prefer knowing the right answers to random exploraAon • Good at understanding and consolidaAng vast amounts of informaAon • Like accurate, organised delivery of informaAon • Trust knowledge of the expert Pragma6sts (AC/AE) Strength: Seek and try out new ideas, prac:cal, down-‐to-‐earth, enjoy problem solving and decision-‐making quickly, bored with long discussions. • • • Ask: “How?” Prefer technical tasks to interpersonal ones Are good at using learning for problem-‐solving
Below is the summarized of each personality’s best and worst learning styles
Personality
AcAvist • • • • •
Best in involved in new experiences problems and opportuniAes working with others in team tasks or role-‐playing being thrown in the deep end with a difficult task chairing meeAngs, leading discussions • • • •
Worst at listening to lectures or long explanaAons reading, wriAng or thinking on their own absorbing and understanding data following precise instrucAon to the leger
Personality
Reflector • •
Best in observing individuals or groups at work reviewing what has happened and thinking about what they have learned producing analyses and reports doing tasks without Aght deadlines put in complex situaAons where they have to use their skills and knowledge they are in structured situaAons with clear purpose they are offered interesAng ideas or concepts even though they are not immediately relevant they have the chance to quesAon and probe ideas • • • •
Worst at acAng as leader or role-‐ playing in front of others doing things with no Ame to prepare being thrown in at the deep end being rushed or worried by deadlines
•
Theorist
•
•
•
• •
•
•
•
they have to parAcipate in situaAons which emphasize emoAon and feelings the acAvity is unstructured or briefing is poor they have to do things without knowing the principles or concepts involved they feel they're out of tune with the other parAcipants, for example people with different learning styles there is no obvious or immediate benefit that they can recognize there is no pracAce or guidelines on how to do it there is no apparent benefit to the learning the event or learning is 'all theory'
PragmaAst
• • •
•
there is a link between the topic and job they have the chance to try out techniques they are shown techniques with obvious advantages such as saving Ame they are shown a model they can copy
•
• • •
REFLECTIVE STUDY (PRACTICE)
ReflecAve
pracAce is "the capacity to reflect on acAon so as to engage in a process of conAnuous learning", which, according to the originator of the term, is "one of the defining characterisAcs of professional pracAce". According to one definiAon it involves "paying criAcal agenAon to the pracAcal values and theories which inform everyday acAons, by examining pracAce reflecAvely and reflexively. This leads to developmental insight". ReflecAve pracAce can be an important tool in pracAce-‐based professional learning selngs where individuals learning from their own professional experiences, rather than from formal teaching or knowledge transfer, may be the most important source of personal professional development and improvement. As such the noAon has achieved wide take-‐ up, parAcularly in professional development for pracAAoners in the areas of educaAon and healthcare. The quesAon of how best to learn from experience has wider relevance however, to any organizaAonal learning environment. In parAcular, people in leadership posiAons have a tremendous development opportunity if they engage in reflecAve pracAce.
History and background
ReflecAve
PracAce was introduced by Donald Schön in his book The ReflecAve PracAAoner in 1983, however, the concepts underlying reflecAve pracAce are much older. John Dewey was among the first to write about ReflecAve PracAce with his exploraAon of experience, interacAon and reflecAon. Other researchers such as Kurt Lewin, Jean Piaget,William James and Carl Jung were developing theories of human learning and development. Marcus Aurelius' MeditaAons has also been described as an example of reflecAve pracAce. Dewey’s works inspired writers such as Donald Schön and David Boud to explore the boundaries of reflecAve pracAce. Central to the development of reflecAve theory was interest in the integraAon of theory and pracAce, the cyclic pagern of experience and the conscious applicaAon of that learning experience. For the last 30 years, there has been a growing literature and focus around experienAal learning and the development and applicaAon of ReflecAve PracAce.ReflecAve pracAce also contributes to learning and expressing our own and others' stories (Ivan, 2012). Donald Schön’s 1983 book introduces concepts such as ‘reflecAon on acAon’ and ‘reflecAon in-‐acAon’ where professionals meet the challenges of their work with a kind of improvisaAon learned in pracAce. ReflecAve PracAce has now been widely accepted and used as developmental pracAces for organisaAons, networks, and individuals. As Boud et al state: "ReflecAon is an important human acAvity in which people recapture their experience, think about it, mull it over and evaluate it. It is this working with experience that is important in learning."[6] ReflecAve PracAce can be seen and has been recognised in many teaching and learning scenarios, and the emergence in more recent years of blogging has been seen as another form of reflecAon on experience in a technological age.
Models of reflec6ve prac6ce
The
concept of ReflecAve PracAce centers around the idea of lifelong learning where a pracAAoner analyses experiences in order to learn from them. ReflecAve PracAce is used to promote independent professionals who are conAnuously engaged in the reflecAon of situaAons they encounter in their professional worlds. There are several models of reflecAon used to draw lessons out of experiences.
Argyris and Schön 1978 Argyris and Schön pioneered the idea of single loop and double loop learning in 1978. The theory was built around the recogniAon and amendment of a perceived fault or error.[8] Single loop learning is when a pracAAoner or organisaAon, even aber an error has occurred and a correcAon is made, conAnues to rely on current strategies, techniques or polices when a situaAon again comes to light. Double loop learning involves the modificaAon of personal objecAves, strategies or policies so that when a similar situaAon arises a new framing system is employed. Schön himself introduced some years later the concept of ReflecAon-‐in-‐acAon and ReflecAon-‐on-‐acAon. ReflecAon-‐in-‐ acAon can be described as the ability of a pracAAoner to ‘think on their feet’, otherwise known as ‘felt-‐knowing’. It revolves around the idea that within any given moment, when faced with a professional issue, a pracAAoner usually connects with their feelings, emoAons and prior experiences to agend to the situaAon directly. ReflecAon-‐on-‐acAon on the other hand is the idea that aber the experience a pracAAoner analyses their reacAon to the situaAon and explores the reasons around, and the consequences of, their acAons. This is usually conducted though a documented reflecAon of the situaAon.
Kolb 1984 Kolb was highly influenced by the research conducted by Dewey and Piaget in the 1970s. Kolb’s reflecAve model highlights the concept of experimental learning and is centered around the transformaAon of informaAon into knowledge. This takes place aber the situaAon has occurred and entails a pracAAoner reflecAng on the experience, gaining a general understanding of the concepts encountered during the experience and then tesAng these general understandings on a new situaAon. In this way the knowledge that is gained from a situaAon is conAnuously applied and reapplied building on a pracAAoners prior experiences and knowledge.
Gibbs 1988 AdaptaAon of the Gibbs ReflecAve Model Graham Gibbs discussed the use of structured debriefing to facilitate the reflecAon involved in Kolb's "experienAal learning cycle". He presents the stages of a full structured debriefing as follows: • (IniAal experience) • Descrip(on: "What happened? Don't make judgements yet or try to draw conclusions; simply describe." • Feelings: "What were your reacAons and feelings? Again don't move on to analysing these yet." • Evalua(on: "What was good or bad about the experience? Make value judgements." • Analysis: "What sense can you make of the situaAon? Bring in ideas from outside the experience to help you." "What was really going on?" "Were different people's experiences similar or different in important ways?" • Conclusions (general): "What can be concluded, in a general sense, from these experiences and the analyses you have undertaken?" • Conclusions (specific): "What can be concluded about your own specific, unique, personal situaAon or way of working?" • Personal ac(on plans: "What are you going to do differently in this type of situaAon next Ame?" "What steps are you going to take on the basis of what you have learnt?" Gibbs' suggesAons are oben cited as Gibbs' reflecAve cycle or Gibbs' model of reflecAon (1988), and simplified into the following six disAnct stages: • Descrip(on • Feelings • Evalua(on • Analysis • Conclusions • Ac(on plan. Johns 1995 Johns’ model is a structured mode of reflecAon that provides a pracAAoner with a guide to gain greater understanding. It is designed to be carried out through the act of sharing with a colleague or mentor, which enables the experience to become learnt knowledge at a faster rate than reflecAon alone. Johns highlights the importance of experienced knowledge and the ability of a pracAAoner to access, understand and put into pracAce informaAon that has been acquired through empirical means. In order for this to be achieved reflecAon occurs though ‘looking in’ on ones thoughts and emoAons and ‘looking out’ at the situaAon experienced. Johns draws on the work of Carper (1978) to expand on the noAon of ‘looking out’ at an experience. Five pagerns of knowing are incorporated into the guided reflecAon, having a pracAAoner analyze the aestheAc, personal, ethical, empirical and the reflexive elements experienced through the situaAon. Johns’ model is comprehensive and allows for reflecAon that touches on many important elements.
Brookfield 1998 CriAcally reflecAve pracAAoners constantly research their assumpAons by seeing pracAce through four complimentary lenses: the lens of their autobiography of learners of reflecAve pracAce,the lens of learners eyes,the lens of colleagues' percepAon and the lens of theoreAcal, philosophical and research literature. Reviewing pracAce through these lens makes us more aware of the power dynamics that infuse all pracAce selngs. It also helps us detect hegemonic assumpAons-‐assumpAons that we think are in our own best interests but actually work against us in the long run (BROOKFIELD 1998) To become criAcally reflecAve Brookfield thinks that the four lenses stated above will reflect back to us stark and differently highlighted picture of who we are and what we do. Lens 1-‐ Through ourselves Our autobiography as a learner is an important source of insight into pracAce. As we talk to each other about criAcal events in our pracAce, we start to realize that individual crises are usually collecAvely experienced dilemmas. Analysing our autobiographies allows us to draw insight and meanings for pracAce on a deep visceral emoAonal level. Lens 2-‐ Through Learner’s eyes Seeing ourselves through learners eyes we discover that learners are interpreAng our acAons in the way that we mean them. But oben we are surprised by the diversity of meanings people read into our words and acAons. A cardinal principle of seeing ourselves through learners eyes is that ensuring the anonymity of their criAcal opinions. You have to make students feel safe. Seeing our pracAce through learners eyes help us teach more responsively Lens 3 -‐ Our colleagues' Experiences Our colleagues serve as criAcal mirrors reflecAng back to us images of our acAons. talking to colleagues about problems and gaining their perspecAve increases our chance finding some informaAon that can help our situaAon. Lens 4-‐ Theore(cal Literature Theory can help us "name"our pracAce by illuminaAng the general elements of what we think are idiosyncraAc experiences.
Rolfe 2001 Rolfe’s reflecAve model is based around Borton’s 1970 developmental model. A simplisAc cycle composed of 3 quesAons which asks the pracAAoner, What, So What and Now What. Through this analysis a descripAon of the situaAon is given which then leads into the scruAny of the situaAon and the construcAon of knowledge that has been learnt through the experience. Subsequent to this, ways in which to personally improve and the consequence of ones response to the experience are reflected on.
Applica6on in Educa6on In its broadest extent, the term reflecAve learning refers to a rab of acAviAes. These include: reflecAve learning journals/ logs • learning contracts; • peer and self assessment /debriefing;
• criAcal incident diaries; • fieldwork diaries; • personal development planners; • reflecAve commentaries; • acAon research; • collaboraAve inquiry • synopAc or ‘capstone’ modules.
ReflecAve pracAce refers to the process of the educator studying his or her own teaching methods and determining what works best for the students. It involves the consideraAon of the ethical consequences of classroom procedures on students. The appeal of the use of reflecAve pracAce for teachers is that as teaching and learning are complex, and there is not one right approach, reflecAng on different versions of teaching, and reshaping past and current experiences will lead to improvement in teaching pracAces. Schön’s reflecAon-‐in-‐acAon assists teachers in making the professional knowledge that they will gain from their experience in the classroom an explicit part of their decision-‐making. As Larrivee argues, ReflecAve PracAce moves teachers from their knowledge base of disAnct skills to a stage in their careers where they are able to modify their skills to suit specific contexts and situaAons, and eventually to invent new strategies. In implemenAng a process of ReflecAve PracAce teachers will be able to move themselves, and their schools, beyond exisAng theories in pracAce. Larrivee concludes that teachers should “resist establishing a classroom culture of control and become a reflecAve pracAAoner, conAnuously engaging in a criAcal reflecAon, consequently remaining fluid in the dynamic environment of the classroom”.
The act of reflecAon is seen as a way of promoAng the development of autonomous, qualified and self-‐directed professionals. Engaging in ReflecAve PracAce is associated with the improvement of the quality of care, sAmulaAng personal and professional growth and closing the gap between theory and pracAce. AcAviAes to promote reflecAon are now being incorporated into undergraduate, postgraduate and conAnuing medical educaAon across a variety of health professions. Mann (2009) found through her research that in pracAcing professionals the process of reflecAon appears to be mulAfactorial and to include different aspects. In addiAon to reflecAon both on and during experiences that the anAcipaAon of a challenging situaAon also sAmulated reflecAon. PracAcing professionals vary in their tendency and ability to reflect. Davies idenAfies that there are both benefits as well as limitaAons to reflecAve pracAce:
Benefits to Reflec6ve Prac6ce • Increased learning from an experience for situaAon • PromoAon of deep learning • IdenAficaAon of personal and professional strengths and areas for improvement • IdenAficaAon of educaAonal needs
• AcquisiAon of new knowledge and skills • Further understanding of own beliefs, altudes and values • Encouragement of self-‐moAvaAon and self-‐directed learning • Could act as a source of feedback • Possible improvements of personal and clinical confidence
Suggested ways to pracAce reflecAve management include: • Coaching; • Keeping a journal; • Seeking feedback; • View experiences objecAvely; and • Taking Ame at the end of each day, meeAng, experience etc. to reflect-‐on-‐acAons. • Anecdotal Notes • Group discussion
TOOLS FOR SELF REFLECTION
Experien6al Learning ExperienAal learning is the process of making meaning from direct experience. Simply put, ExperienAal Learning is learning from experience. The experience can be staged or leb open. Aristotle once said, "For the things we have to learn before we can do them, we learn by doing them." David A. Kolb helped to popularize the idea of experienAal learning drawing heavily on the work of John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, and Jean Piaget. His work on experienAal learning has contributed greatly to expanding the philosophy of experienAal educaAon.
Overview ExperienAal learning is learning through reflecAon on doing, which is oben contrasted with rote or didacAc learning. ExperienAal learning is related to, but not synonymous with, experienAal educaAon, acAon learning, adventure learning, free choice learning, cooperaAve learning, and service learning. While there are relaAonships and connecAons between all these theories of educaAon, importantly they are also separate terms with separate meanings. ExperienAal learning focuses on the learning process for the individual. It is oben used synonymously with the phrase experienAal educaAon, however, while experienAal learning considers the individual learning process, experienAal educaAon should be considered a broader philosophy of educaAon. As such, it is concerned with issues such as the relaAonship of teacher and student, as well as broader issues of educaAonal structure and objecAves. An example of experienAal learning is going to the zoo and learning through observaAon and interacAon with the zoo environment, as opposed to reading about animals from a book. Thus, one makes discoveries and experiments with knowledge firsthand, instead of hearing or reading about others' experiences. Further, in business school, internship and job-‐
shadowing opportuniAes in a student’s field of interest are elevated as examples of valuable experienAal learning which contribute significantly to the student’s overall understanding of the real-‐Ame environment. ExperienAal learning can exist without a teacher and relates solely to the meaning making process of the individual's direct experience. However, though the gaining of knowledge is an inherent process that occurs naturally, for a genuine learning experience to occur, there must exist certain elements. According to David A. Kolb, an American educaAonal theorist, knowledge is conAnuously gained through both personal and environmental experiences. He states that in order to gain genuine knowledge from an experience, certain abiliAes are required: 1. 2. 3. 4. the learner must be willing to be ac:vely involved in the experience; the learner must be able to reflect on the experience; the learner must possess and use analy:cal skills to conceptualize the experience; and the learner must possess decision making and problem solving skills in order to use the new ideas gained from the experience.
Implementa6on
ExperienAal
learning can be a highly effecAve educaAonal method. ExperienAal acAviAes are among the most powerful teaching and learning tools available. ExperienAal learning requires self-‐iniAaAve, an ‘intenAon to learn’ and an ‘acAve phase of learning’. Kolb's cycle of experienAal learning can be used as a framework for considering the different stages involved. Moon has elaborated on this cycle to argue that experienAal learning is most effecAve when it involves: 1) a ‘reflec(ve learning phase’ 2) a phase of learning resul(ng from the ac(ons inherent to experien(al learning, and 3) ‘a further phase of learning from feedback’. This process of learning can result in ‘changes in judgement, feeling or skills’ for the individual and can provide direcAon for the ‘making of judgements as a guide to choice and acAon’. Most educators understand the important role experience plays in the learning process. The role of emoAon and feelings in learning from experience has been recognised as an important part of experienAal learning. While those factors may improve the likelihood of experienAal learning occurring, it can occur without them. For example, prison inmates may benefit from experienAal learning in the absence of fun, laughter, or respect. Rather, what is vital in experienAal learning is that the individual is encouraged to directly involve themselves in the experience, and then to reflect on their experiences using analyAc skills, in order that they gain a beger understanding of the new knowledge and retain the informaAon for a longer Ame. According to learning consultant, experienAal learning is about creaAng an experience where learning can be facilitated. It should be noted that this theory does not tend to be culturally inclusive and learners who hold varying pedagogical preferences may not fit with Kolb’s perspecAve. While it is the learner's experience that is most important to the learning process, it is also important not to forget the wealth of experience a good facilitator also brings to the situaAon. However, while a "facilitator", tradiAonally called a "teacher", may improve the likelihood of experienAal learning occurring, a "facilitator" is not essenAal to experienAal learning. Rather, the mechanism of experienAal learning is the learner's reflecAon on experiences using analyAc skills. This can occur without the presence of a facilitator, meaning that experienAal learning is not defined by the presence of a facilitator. Yet, by considering
experienAal learning in developing course or program content, it provides an opportunity to develop a framework for adapAng varying teaching/learning techniques into the classroom.
I.
LEARNING STYLES
Learning styles is a term generally used to describe an individual's natural or habitual pagern of acquiring and processing informaAon in learning situaAons. There is no commonly accepted definiAon of learning styles; however, a core concept is that individuals differ in how they learn. The idea of individualized "learning styles" originated in the 1970s, and acquired "enormous popularity". Proponents for the use of learning styles in educaAon said that teachers should assess the learning styles of their students and adapt their classroom methods to best fit each student's learning style. Although there is ample evidence for differences in individual thinking and ways of processing various types of informaAon, few studies have reliably tested the validity of using learning styles in educaAon.[2]. CriAcs say there is no evidence that idenAfying an individual student's learning style produces beger outcomes. There is evidence of empirical and pedagogical problems related to the use of learning tasks to "correspond to differences in a one-‐to-‐one fashion" [3] [4]. Well-‐designed studies contradict the widespread "meshing hypothesis", that a student will learn best if taught in a method deemed appropriate for the student's learning style.
Learning style inventories Learning style inventories are designed to help respondents determine which learning style they have. These inventories typically take the form of a quesAonnaire that focuses on how people prefer to learn. Respondents choose the answers that most closely resemble their own preferences. It is useful to idenAfy strengths and weaknesses that corresponds to set up the goals
Kolb's Learning Style Inventory (LSI) Perhaps one of the best-‐known and most widely used quesAonnaires is the Learning Style Inventory (LSI) based upon Kolb's learning styles. The computerized assessment allows students to discover their learning style and also provides informaAon on how educators can use this informaAon to best serve students as well as possible strategies for accommodaAng different learning styles.
Peter Honey and Alan Mumford's model Two adaptaAons were made to Kolb's experienAal model. Firstly, the stages in the cycle were renamed to accord with managerial experiences of decision making/problem solving. The Honey & Mumford stages are: • Having an experience • Reviewing the experience • Concluding from the experience • Planning the next steps.
Secondly, the styles were directly aligned to the stages in the cycle and named AcAvist, Reflector, Theorist and PragmaAst. These are assumed to be acquired preferences that are adaptable, either at will or through changed circumstances, rather than being fixed personality characterisAcs. The Honey & Mumford Learning Styles QuesAonnaire (LSQ) is a self-‐development tool and differs from Kolb's Learning Style inventory by inviAng managers to complete a checklist of work-‐related behaviors without directly asking managers how they learn. Having completed the self-‐assessment, managers are encouraged to focus on strengthening under uAlised styles in order to become beger equipped to learn from a wide range of everyday experiences. A MORI survey commissioned by The Campaign for Learning[9] in 1999 found the Honey & Mumford LSQ to be the most widely used system for assessing preferred learning styles in the local government sector in the UK.
Fleming's VARK Learning Style Ques(onnaire In Fleming's VARK learning style model, learners are idenAfied as one of four different types: visual, auditory, reading/ wriAng and kinestheAc. In 1987, he developed a quesAonnaire based upon his model that was designed to help people learn more about their individual style. The model and quesAonnaire quickly became very popular among students and educators, and both remain widely used today.
Jackson's Learning Styles Profiler (LSP) The Learning Style Profiler (LSP) is based upon Chris J. Jackson's hybrid model of learning in personality. Jackson's model suggests that learning styles are influenced by a variety of factors including experience, personal choice and biology. The profiler is designed to assess how people learn at work, so it is oben used in organizaAonal and business selngs.
II.
REFLECTIVE WRITINGS
ReflecAve wriAng is wriAng which involves '… consideraAon of the larger context, the meaning, and the implicaAons of an experience or acAon' In medical and health science courses you are required to produce reflecAve wriAng in order to learn from educaAonal and pracAcal experiences, and to develop the habit of criAcal reflecAon as a future health professional. ReflecAve wriAng may be based on: • descripAon and analysis of a learning experience within the course: -‐ a community placement -‐ a clinical placement -‐ a rural placement • descripAon and analysis of a past experience • review of your learning or course to that point • descripAon and analysis of a criAcal incident.
There are several condiAons for reflecAve wriAng that should be done before and during the project, not only aber them. These includes : • PreparaAon – when you enter into a new experience, try to idenAfy opportuniAes for reflecAon. • Understanding – you need to know what the goals and expectaAons of criAcal reflecAon are. • Time to stop and think. • A level of objecAvity about yourself and the impact of your acAons. • Honesty. • An open, non-‐defensive altude to the experience. • A focus on the deeper levels of meaning – moral, ethical, social and/or professional issues (Branch & Paranjape, 2002) in addiAon to your emoAonal response.
In the workplace, lack of Ame frequently limits opportuniAes for learning through reflecAon. People may not have Ame to stop and think. Similarly, Ame is an issue for students. For students, perhaps the major obstacle to learning through reflecAon is devoAng insufficient Ame to it, and consequently failing to explore the experience in depth. Students someAmes write simply to meet the assessment requirements, without genuinely engaging in the process. This will not lead to meaningful insights or posiAve change.
Common errors in reflec6ve wri6ng
1. Planning You should be thinking about possible subjects and opportuniAes for reflecAve wriAng before and during your placements, not only aber them. 2. Wri6ng style WriAng too informally: just because it is based on your experience does not mean you can ignore academic style. Example
Original text In my opinion, if there are too many 'buts' in my choosing to pracAce in a rural area then I must not be ready for it, so it's beger for me to stay put in the city. Alterna6ve text The reservaAons I currently feel about pracAcing in a rural selng suggest that I am not yet ready for such a move. So at this stage I plan to work in the city on graduaAon.
3. Too lidle or too much detail You need to describe the experience adequately – the reader needs to be given enough detail to understand the context in which the experience occurred. However, it is not enough just to describe the experience in great detail: you
also need to analyse and evaluate the events and the thinking processes involved. You should aim to consider deeper levels of meaning, exploring moral, ethical, social and/or professional issues. Take Ame to organize and structure your wriAng. Try to focus on what was most significant about the experience, and relate it to aspects of your course and future career. Be careful that your wriAng does not seem to simply drib without direcAon or focus.
4. Being judgmental Try to describe events accurately and honestly, but avoid moralizing about people's behavior. Example Original text I was shocked when the doctor showed me the paAent's file without seeking consent. His disregard for the rules regarding paAent consent caused me to lose respect for him and to quesAon his ethical standards. I was surprised when the doctor showed me the paAent's file without seeking consent. It made me realize that discrepancies can exist between what is taught on course and the way in which medicine is pracAced in reality. From my own perspecAve, as a future doctor I would seek to maintain high ethical standards, and to encourage that among staff under my supervision. Alterna6ve text During the second week of my clinical study, I met a paAent who needed an x-‐ray for her knee and hip joint. She was overweight and not very aware of my role as radiographer – she treated me more like a technician than a future doctor. Even worse, she was not cooperaAve, kept murmuring and shouted out about her pain throughout the procedure. Furthermore, this paAent didn't listen to our instrucAons and wouldn't stay sAll aber posiAoning. During the second week of my clinical study, I met a paAent who needed an x-‐ray for her knee and hip joint. This was made more difficult because she was significantly over-‐weight and not very aware of my role as radiographer. She appeared distracted and had difficulty coping with her level of pain, someAmes shouAng out. In terms of the x-‐ray procedure the paAent was uncooperaAve – she did not follow our instrucAons and would not stay sAll aber posiAoning. This made it very difficult to produce an adequate x-‐ray.
It could be useful to analyze this incident further – for example: What surprised me most about this incident was the altude of the paAent to the health professionals. In my culture most people treat health professionals with great respect, and acknowledge their authority; they are even someAmes inAmidated by them. I realized that in the Australian context compliance from the paAent cannot be assumed. The doctor has to gain the trust and cooperaAon of the paAent, and this may not always be easy. In this case I found that talking quietly to the paAent and explaining each requirement in detail reassured her, and ulAmately led to a greater level of cooperaAon. However, this made the consultaAon much longer than it otherwise would have been.
Characteris6cs of reflec6ve wri6ng
• The use of tenses
ReflecAve wriAng oben requires movement between past and present tenses, depending on whether you are recounAng the actual events or making a more general comment (for example, on the doctor-‐paAent relaAonship, or on an aspect of your current course). Generally, when recounAng a parAcular experience or incident, past tense is used. Example 1 As part of my placement at the Echuca Base Hospital I worked closely with the nursing staff. I was impressed by the rapport they had with their paAents – while performing their duAes professionally they oben joked with the paAents, and in that way maintained a relaxed and pleasant atmosphere on the ward. I noAced that the nurses had more regular contact with paAents than the doctors, and consequently seemed to develop a closer relaAonship. Example 2 When two of the paAents became agitated I did not know what to do. I asked them to return to their beds, but they simply ignored me. I did not know what the correct procedure was in this situaAon. When making a general comment, or relaAng an incident to current pracAce or to a parAcular theoreAcal perspecAve, present tense is normally used. Example 3 It seems that the roles of nurses and doctors are quite different, and that doctors need to acknowledge the importance of the nurse-‐paAent relaAonship. Example 4 Clearly making new staff aware of the procedures and rules is important when they join a new workplace or insAtuAon.
• Specula6ve and hypothe6cal wri6ng In reflecAve wriAng you may be asked to speculate about the future, or about a hypotheAcal situaAon. For example, you may be asked to comment on whether you would like to pracAce in a rural area in your future career. NoAce in the example below the movement between past and present tenses, and the use of 'would' when speculaAng about the future. Example 5 Although my rural placement was a very posiAve experience, I would not like to work in the country when I first graduate. There are several reasons for this. Firstly, being a country doctor is more challenging – you do not have the support networks available in the city, so you have to cope with many different situaAons. Also, you have less privacy. In the country I would have to behave as the local doctor all the Ame, 24 hours a day. There would not be an opportunity to just be myself and not worry about what people think. Living in the country I would be far away from my family, and might feel lonely for that reason. Finally, I would have to focus on general pracAce, whereas my interest lies in more specialized areas of medicine. Example 6 As soon as I started there, I could see that having a good working relaAonship with the nurses would make my job much easier, and would possibly result in beger health care for paAents.
• Self reflec6on v self cri6cism Some writers become confused between self-‐reflecAon and self-‐criAcism. You need to go beyond simply admilng a weakness or mistake or failure – what is important is not only what you did, but how you felt, what you have learnt from that experience, and how it will inform your behavior in the future.
Addressing course issues and topics Try not to confine your wriAng to the event and your feelings. If possible, use it to raise new quesAons or to speculate about possible causes and soluAons. Remember where possible to link your reflecAons to theoreAcal aspects of your course. For example:
Original text When the doctor raised his voice to the paAent I felt embarrassed. It reminded me to maintain an appropriate communicaAon style with paAents when I am a doctor. Alterna6ve text When the doctor raised his voice to the paAent I felt embarrassed and the paAent appeared to feel humiliated. Clearly this behavior by the doctor was not appropriate, even though the doctor was obviously frustrated at the paAent's apparent inability to understand the instrucAons. While it is the responsibility of every doctor to behave respec|ully with paAents, on this occasion an excessive workload and the lack of availability of an interpreter no doubt contributed to the doctor's behavior. It reminded me that structural factors within the health care system, such as staffing and budgets, can impact on the quality of agenAon delivered to paAents.
III. Reflec6ve paper
There
are four dimensions in reflecAve paper Dimension 1 Comprehensive observaAons aiming for accuracy and breadth; these observaAons are made through specific frameworks (e.g., past experiences as a school student, BEd studies, or work on Prac.). Dimension 2 Dimension 3 Dimension 4 Comprehensive descripAons of what has been observed. Making meaning of what has been described. Adding depth and breadth to the meanings by asking quesAons about, and relaAng meanings to, a spectrum of personal and professional issues.
Requirements in reflec6ve paper
1.
Always use an event as a way of referring to an idea or theory 2. Emphasis on quesAons: • why something happened, or why something did not happen.
• Ask yourself what was good: why?; what was bad: why?; what was neither good nor bad, yet interesAng and relevant: why? • Think of alternaAves; what other things could have happened and how could you devise ways of making them happen? • Look for other points of view (e.g., what was this like from the students’ perspecAve?). • Look for hidden assumpAons in others’ altudes, and in your own (e.g., what incidents in my own schooling have led me to believe this?; what are the hidden rules in my own culture?). • Parts and qualiAes: look at something as a collecAon of parts(components and relaAonships), but also as a set of qualiAes (e.g., values and judgements). • Look at something from an opposite point of view to challenge it. • Ask who might be advantaged and who might be disadvantaged by current (and new hypotheAcal) responses and acAons.
3. Take the significant words and phrases • best : this seems an insignificant word, but by thinking about it carefully, you will remember to carefully evaluate your list of condiAons so that you only include the most important in your answer. As you do this, you will be asking yourself why is one condiAon more important than another, and through thinking about this your level of response to the quesAon will be deepened. • I feel that...I think...I was aware...I realized...I was uncomfortable about...Looking back, I now think... • Upon reflec:on • AQer observa:on • The significance of this ac:vity • This comment tells me that • It is important for me to realize that • This is significant because • This ac:vity prompted me to • Note that I acknowledge • These comments indicate • It is significant that • This could be more effec:ve if • Con:nuing to reflect on • This helped me to recognize that • I focused on … because • To promote con:nued thinking, I • Because of this event (or comment), I • This helped me to realize • I have greater awareness
• I realized that • The impact of this ac:vity • The evidence of this collabora:on was • The intent of my ques:on was • This helped me to refocus on
IV. Blogging
The
progression in the past decade of blogs from personal web journals to a pla|orm for established professionals, corporaAons and writers has also created opportuniAes for educaAon. Blogs offer students and teachers the chance of • Online discussion • Video posAng • PodcasAng pla|orm • PosAng via email & cell phone • Free web space for class materials • Minimals web skills required • A way to address topics in wriAng
MODELS OF REFLECTION
GIBBS MODEL OF REFLECTION Context • What has happened? Briefly describe the event as objecAvely, accurately and concisely as you can. Who was involved? Where did it happen? Do you intend to focus on the structure, process or outcomes of care? Thoughts • What were your thoughts... ...at the Ame? ...aberwards? Feelings • What were your feelings or emoAons, both posiAve and negaAve... ...at the Ame ? ...aberwards ? Evalua6on • How well did things go? Were things saAsfactorily resolved?
Analyse • What were the factors that affected the outcome? What helped and what hindered? Can you explain the event? Why did it happen? How did it happen? Reframe • What might have been some alternaAve acAons or approaches? What might you have done differently (even when things went well)? Could negaAve events be avoided? Could posiAve events be made more effecAve?
Future ac6on • What will you do if you encounter this kind of situaAon again? What will you do in the future to increase the likelihood of similar posiAve outcomes and minimize the likelihood of similar negaAve outcomes? What do you need to learn? How might you learn this?
JOHN’S MODEL FOR STRUCTURED REFLECTION (2000) This can be used as a guide for analysis of a criAcal incident or general reflecAon on experience. John supports the need for the learner to work with a supervisor throughout the experience. He recommends that the student uses a structured diary. He advises to ‘look in on the situaAon’, which would include focusing on yourself and paying agenAon to your thoughts and emoAons. He then advises to ‘look out of the situaAon’ and write a descripAon of the situaAon around your thoughts and feelings, what you are trying to achieve, why you responded in the way you did, how others were feeling, did you act in the best way, ethical concepts etc. He also considers the use of internal factors, such as expectaAons from others, Ame factors, normal pracAce, anxiety of the situaAon etc.
Despite this, (and this is my personal view, not the view of the 'anA-‐Learning Styles lobby'), many teachers and educators conAnue to find value and benefit by using Learning Styles theory in one way or another, and as oben applies in such situaAons, there is likely to be usage which is appropriate, and other usage which is not. Accordingly -‐ especially if you are working with young people -‐ use systems and methods with care. It is wrong to apply any methodology blindly and unquesAoningly, and wrong not to review and assess effecAveness of methods used.
That said, Learning Styles theories such as Kolb's model and VARK are included on this website for very broad purposes; these materials form a part of a much bigger range of concepts and other content concerning personality, self-‐awareness, self-‐development, and the development of mutual understanding and teams, etc., especially for the use in adult careers, work, business, management, human resources, and commercial training.
Concrete experience/ CE (feeling) Learning from specific experiences and relaAng to people. SensiAve to other's feelings and oben called a “workshop junkies”. This results in conAnually seeking out new experiences. However, having experiences without reflecAon or taking acAon to change means the learning is never consolidated.
Reflec6ve observa6on/ RO (watching) Observing before making a judgment by viewing the environment from different perspecAves. Looks for the meaning of things. This results in avoiding new experiences and avoiding synthesizing conclusions unAl more informaAon is gathered and pondered. At best this results in very slow learning and at worst it sAfles potenAal change.
Abstract conceptualiza6on/ AC (thinking) Logical analysis of ideas and acAng on intellectual understanding of a situaAon. This results in a need to conceptualise and draw intellectual conclusions without adequate reflecAon. Conclusions are oben drawn too quickly and from a theoreAcally standpoint (not drawn from the real learning experiences).
Ac6ve experimenta6on/ AE (doing) Ability to get things done by influencing people and events through acAon. Includes risk-‐taking. This results in “quick wins” and “expediencies” that may prove to be poor soluAons in the long run.
That’s said, a learning style enables learning to be orientated according to the preferred method. Everyone responds to and needs the sAmulus of all types of learning styles to one extent or another -‐ it's a mager of using emphasis that fits best with the given situaAon and a person's learning style preferences. Here are brief descripAons of the four Kolb learning styles: Diverging/ Reflectors Style: feeling and watching (CE/RO) These people are able to look at things from different perspecAves. They are sensiAve. They prefer to watch rather than do, tending to gather informaAon and use imaginaAon to solve problems. They are best at viewing concrete situaAons several different viewpoints. Kolb called this style 'Diverging' because these people perform beger in situaAons that require ideas-‐generaAon, for example, brainstorming. People with a Diverging learning style have broad cultural interests and like to gather informaAon. They are interested in people, tend to be imaginaAve and emoAonal, and tend to be strong in the arts. People with the Diverging style prefer to work in groups, to listen with an open mind and to receive personal feedback.
Assimila6ng/ Theorist Style: watching and thinking (AC/RO) The AssimilaAng learning preference is for a concise, logical approach. Ideas and concepts are more important than people. These people require good clear explanaAon rather than pracAcal opportunity. They excel at understanding wide-‐ranging informaAon and organising it a clear logical format. People with an AssimilaAng learning style are less focused on people and more interested in ideas and abstract concepts. People with this style are more agracted to logically sound theories than approaches based on pracAcal value. These learning style people is important for effecAveness in informaAon and science careers. In formal learning situaAons, people with this style prefer readings, lectures, exploring analyAcal models, and having Ame to think things through.
Converging/Pragma6st Style: doing and thinking (AC/AE) People with a Converging learning style can solve problems and will use their learning to find soluAons to pracAcal issues. They prefer technical tasks, and are less concerned with people and interpersonal aspects. People with a Converging learning style are best at finding pracAcal uses for ideas and theories. They can solve problems and make decisions by finding soluAons to quesAons and problems. People with a Converging learning style are more agracted to technical tasks and problems than social or interpersonal issues. A Converging learning style enables specialist and technology abiliAes. People with a Converging style like to experiment with new ideas, to simulate, and to work with pracAcal applicaAons.
Accommoda6ng/Ac6vist Style: doing and feeling (CE/AE)
The AccommodaAng learning style is 'hands-‐on', and relies on intuiAon rather than logic. These people use other people's analysis, and prefer to take a pracAcal, experienAal approach. They are agracted to new challenges and experiences, and to carrying out plans. They commonly act on 'gut' insAnct rather than logical analysis. People with an AccommodaAng learning style will tend to rely on others for informaAon than carry out their own analysis. This learning style is prevalent and useful in roles requiring acAon and iniAaAve. People with an AccommodaAng learning style prefer to work in teams to complete tasks. They set targets and acAvely work in the field trying different ways to achieve an objecAve.
Below is the learning style of each personality: Ac6vists (AE/CE) Strength: 'Here and now', gregarious, seek challenge and immediate experience, open-‐minded, bored with implementa:on. • Ask: “What would happen if I do this?” • Prefer a hands-‐on, trial-‐and-‐error approach • Are good at learning from specific examples where they are directly involved, and at seeing relaAonships among concepts • Enjoy being involved in new and challenging experiences
Reflectors (CE/RO) Strength: Stand back', gather data, ponder and analyse, delay reaching conclusions, listen before speaking, though?ul. • Ask: “Why?” • Prefer to observe rather than to do • Good at looking at things from different perspecAves • Like to gather informaAon and to reason from concrete specific informaAon • Like to explore what a system has to offer
Theorists (AC/RO) Strength: Think things through in logical steps, assimilate disparate facts into coherent theories, ra:onally objec:ve, reject subjec:vity and flippancy. • Ask: “What is there to know?” • Prefer knowing the right answers to random exploraAon • Good at understanding and consolidaAng vast amounts of informaAon • Like accurate, organised delivery of informaAon • Trust knowledge of the expert Pragma6sts (AC/AE) Strength: Seek and try out new ideas, prac:cal, down-‐to-‐earth, enjoy problem solving and decision-‐making quickly, bored with long discussions. • • • Ask: “How?” Prefer technical tasks to interpersonal ones Are good at using learning for problem-‐solving
Below is the summarized of each personality’s best and worst learning styles
Personality
AcAvist • • • • •
Best in involved in new experiences problems and opportuniAes working with others in team tasks or role-‐playing being thrown in the deep end with a difficult task chairing meeAngs, leading discussions • • • •
Worst at listening to lectures or long explanaAons reading, wriAng or thinking on their own absorbing and understanding data following precise instrucAon to the leger
Personality
Reflector • •
Best in observing individuals or groups at work reviewing what has happened and thinking about what they have learned producing analyses and reports doing tasks without Aght deadlines put in complex situaAons where they have to use their skills and knowledge they are in structured situaAons with clear purpose they are offered interesAng ideas or concepts even though they are not immediately relevant they have the chance to quesAon and probe ideas • • • •
Worst at acAng as leader or role-‐ playing in front of others doing things with no Ame to prepare being thrown in at the deep end being rushed or worried by deadlines
•
Theorist
•
•
•
• •
•
•
•
they have to parAcipate in situaAons which emphasize emoAon and feelings the acAvity is unstructured or briefing is poor they have to do things without knowing the principles or concepts involved they feel they're out of tune with the other parAcipants, for example people with different learning styles there is no obvious or immediate benefit that they can recognize there is no pracAce or guidelines on how to do it there is no apparent benefit to the learning the event or learning is 'all theory'
PragmaAst
• • •
•
there is a link between the topic and job they have the chance to try out techniques they are shown techniques with obvious advantages such as saving Ame they are shown a model they can copy
•
• • •
REFLECTIVE STUDY (PRACTICE)
ReflecAve
pracAce is "the capacity to reflect on acAon so as to engage in a process of conAnuous learning", which, according to the originator of the term, is "one of the defining characterisAcs of professional pracAce". According to one definiAon it involves "paying criAcal agenAon to the pracAcal values and theories which inform everyday acAons, by examining pracAce reflecAvely and reflexively. This leads to developmental insight". ReflecAve pracAce can be an important tool in pracAce-‐based professional learning selngs where individuals learning from their own professional experiences, rather than from formal teaching or knowledge transfer, may be the most important source of personal professional development and improvement. As such the noAon has achieved wide take-‐ up, parAcularly in professional development for pracAAoners in the areas of educaAon and healthcare. The quesAon of how best to learn from experience has wider relevance however, to any organizaAonal learning environment. In parAcular, people in leadership posiAons have a tremendous development opportunity if they engage in reflecAve pracAce.
History and background
ReflecAve
PracAce was introduced by Donald Schön in his book The ReflecAve PracAAoner in 1983, however, the concepts underlying reflecAve pracAce are much older. John Dewey was among the first to write about ReflecAve PracAce with his exploraAon of experience, interacAon and reflecAon. Other researchers such as Kurt Lewin, Jean Piaget,William James and Carl Jung were developing theories of human learning and development. Marcus Aurelius' MeditaAons has also been described as an example of reflecAve pracAce. Dewey’s works inspired writers such as Donald Schön and David Boud to explore the boundaries of reflecAve pracAce. Central to the development of reflecAve theory was interest in the integraAon of theory and pracAce, the cyclic pagern of experience and the conscious applicaAon of that learning experience. For the last 30 years, there has been a growing literature and focus around experienAal learning and the development and applicaAon of ReflecAve PracAce.ReflecAve pracAce also contributes to learning and expressing our own and others' stories (Ivan, 2012). Donald Schön’s 1983 book introduces concepts such as ‘reflecAon on acAon’ and ‘reflecAon in-‐acAon’ where professionals meet the challenges of their work with a kind of improvisaAon learned in pracAce. ReflecAve PracAce has now been widely accepted and used as developmental pracAces for organisaAons, networks, and individuals. As Boud et al state: "ReflecAon is an important human acAvity in which people recapture their experience, think about it, mull it over and evaluate it. It is this working with experience that is important in learning."[6] ReflecAve PracAce can be seen and has been recognised in many teaching and learning scenarios, and the emergence in more recent years of blogging has been seen as another form of reflecAon on experience in a technological age.
Models of reflec6ve prac6ce
The
concept of ReflecAve PracAce centers around the idea of lifelong learning where a pracAAoner analyses experiences in order to learn from them. ReflecAve PracAce is used to promote independent professionals who are conAnuously engaged in the reflecAon of situaAons they encounter in their professional worlds. There are several models of reflecAon used to draw lessons out of experiences.
Argyris and Schön 1978 Argyris and Schön pioneered the idea of single loop and double loop learning in 1978. The theory was built around the recogniAon and amendment of a perceived fault or error.[8] Single loop learning is when a pracAAoner or organisaAon, even aber an error has occurred and a correcAon is made, conAnues to rely on current strategies, techniques or polices when a situaAon again comes to light. Double loop learning involves the modificaAon of personal objecAves, strategies or policies so that when a similar situaAon arises a new framing system is employed. Schön himself introduced some years later the concept of ReflecAon-‐in-‐acAon and ReflecAon-‐on-‐acAon. ReflecAon-‐in-‐ acAon can be described as the ability of a pracAAoner to ‘think on their feet’, otherwise known as ‘felt-‐knowing’. It revolves around the idea that within any given moment, when faced with a professional issue, a pracAAoner usually connects with their feelings, emoAons and prior experiences to agend to the situaAon directly. ReflecAon-‐on-‐acAon on the other hand is the idea that aber the experience a pracAAoner analyses their reacAon to the situaAon and explores the reasons around, and the consequences of, their acAons. This is usually conducted though a documented reflecAon of the situaAon.
Kolb 1984 Kolb was highly influenced by the research conducted by Dewey and Piaget in the 1970s. Kolb’s reflecAve model highlights the concept of experimental learning and is centered around the transformaAon of informaAon into knowledge. This takes place aber the situaAon has occurred and entails a pracAAoner reflecAng on the experience, gaining a general understanding of the concepts encountered during the experience and then tesAng these general understandings on a new situaAon. In this way the knowledge that is gained from a situaAon is conAnuously applied and reapplied building on a pracAAoners prior experiences and knowledge.
Gibbs 1988 AdaptaAon of the Gibbs ReflecAve Model Graham Gibbs discussed the use of structured debriefing to facilitate the reflecAon involved in Kolb's "experienAal learning cycle". He presents the stages of a full structured debriefing as follows: • (IniAal experience) • Descrip(on: "What happened? Don't make judgements yet or try to draw conclusions; simply describe." • Feelings: "What were your reacAons and feelings? Again don't move on to analysing these yet." • Evalua(on: "What was good or bad about the experience? Make value judgements." • Analysis: "What sense can you make of the situaAon? Bring in ideas from outside the experience to help you." "What was really going on?" "Were different people's experiences similar or different in important ways?" • Conclusions (general): "What can be concluded, in a general sense, from these experiences and the analyses you have undertaken?" • Conclusions (specific): "What can be concluded about your own specific, unique, personal situaAon or way of working?" • Personal ac(on plans: "What are you going to do differently in this type of situaAon next Ame?" "What steps are you going to take on the basis of what you have learnt?" Gibbs' suggesAons are oben cited as Gibbs' reflecAve cycle or Gibbs' model of reflecAon (1988), and simplified into the following six disAnct stages: • Descrip(on • Feelings • Evalua(on • Analysis • Conclusions • Ac(on plan. Johns 1995 Johns’ model is a structured mode of reflecAon that provides a pracAAoner with a guide to gain greater understanding. It is designed to be carried out through the act of sharing with a colleague or mentor, which enables the experience to become learnt knowledge at a faster rate than reflecAon alone. Johns highlights the importance of experienced knowledge and the ability of a pracAAoner to access, understand and put into pracAce informaAon that has been acquired through empirical means. In order for this to be achieved reflecAon occurs though ‘looking in’ on ones thoughts and emoAons and ‘looking out’ at the situaAon experienced. Johns draws on the work of Carper (1978) to expand on the noAon of ‘looking out’ at an experience. Five pagerns of knowing are incorporated into the guided reflecAon, having a pracAAoner analyze the aestheAc, personal, ethical, empirical and the reflexive elements experienced through the situaAon. Johns’ model is comprehensive and allows for reflecAon that touches on many important elements.
Brookfield 1998 CriAcally reflecAve pracAAoners constantly research their assumpAons by seeing pracAce through four complimentary lenses: the lens of their autobiography of learners of reflecAve pracAce,the lens of learners eyes,the lens of colleagues' percepAon and the lens of theoreAcal, philosophical and research literature. Reviewing pracAce through these lens makes us more aware of the power dynamics that infuse all pracAce selngs. It also helps us detect hegemonic assumpAons-‐assumpAons that we think are in our own best interests but actually work against us in the long run (BROOKFIELD 1998) To become criAcally reflecAve Brookfield thinks that the four lenses stated above will reflect back to us stark and differently highlighted picture of who we are and what we do. Lens 1-‐ Through ourselves Our autobiography as a learner is an important source of insight into pracAce. As we talk to each other about criAcal events in our pracAce, we start to realize that individual crises are usually collecAvely experienced dilemmas. Analysing our autobiographies allows us to draw insight and meanings for pracAce on a deep visceral emoAonal level. Lens 2-‐ Through Learner’s eyes Seeing ourselves through learners eyes we discover that learners are interpreAng our acAons in the way that we mean them. But oben we are surprised by the diversity of meanings people read into our words and acAons. A cardinal principle of seeing ourselves through learners eyes is that ensuring the anonymity of their criAcal opinions. You have to make students feel safe. Seeing our pracAce through learners eyes help us teach more responsively Lens 3 -‐ Our colleagues' Experiences Our colleagues serve as criAcal mirrors reflecAng back to us images of our acAons. talking to colleagues about problems and gaining their perspecAve increases our chance finding some informaAon that can help our situaAon. Lens 4-‐ Theore(cal Literature Theory can help us "name"our pracAce by illuminaAng the general elements of what we think are idiosyncraAc experiences.
Rolfe 2001 Rolfe’s reflecAve model is based around Borton’s 1970 developmental model. A simplisAc cycle composed of 3 quesAons which asks the pracAAoner, What, So What and Now What. Through this analysis a descripAon of the situaAon is given which then leads into the scruAny of the situaAon and the construcAon of knowledge that has been learnt through the experience. Subsequent to this, ways in which to personally improve and the consequence of ones response to the experience are reflected on.
Applica6on in Educa6on In its broadest extent, the term reflecAve learning refers to a rab of acAviAes. These include: reflecAve learning journals/ logs • learning contracts; • peer and self assessment /debriefing;
• criAcal incident diaries; • fieldwork diaries; • personal development planners; • reflecAve commentaries; • acAon research; • collaboraAve inquiry • synopAc or ‘capstone’ modules.
ReflecAve pracAce refers to the process of the educator studying his or her own teaching methods and determining what works best for the students. It involves the consideraAon of the ethical consequences of classroom procedures on students. The appeal of the use of reflecAve pracAce for teachers is that as teaching and learning are complex, and there is not one right approach, reflecAng on different versions of teaching, and reshaping past and current experiences will lead to improvement in teaching pracAces. Schön’s reflecAon-‐in-‐acAon assists teachers in making the professional knowledge that they will gain from their experience in the classroom an explicit part of their decision-‐making. As Larrivee argues, ReflecAve PracAce moves teachers from their knowledge base of disAnct skills to a stage in their careers where they are able to modify their skills to suit specific contexts and situaAons, and eventually to invent new strategies. In implemenAng a process of ReflecAve PracAce teachers will be able to move themselves, and their schools, beyond exisAng theories in pracAce. Larrivee concludes that teachers should “resist establishing a classroom culture of control and become a reflecAve pracAAoner, conAnuously engaging in a criAcal reflecAon, consequently remaining fluid in the dynamic environment of the classroom”.
The act of reflecAon is seen as a way of promoAng the development of autonomous, qualified and self-‐directed professionals. Engaging in ReflecAve PracAce is associated with the improvement of the quality of care, sAmulaAng personal and professional growth and closing the gap between theory and pracAce. AcAviAes to promote reflecAon are now being incorporated into undergraduate, postgraduate and conAnuing medical educaAon across a variety of health professions. Mann (2009) found through her research that in pracAcing professionals the process of reflecAon appears to be mulAfactorial and to include different aspects. In addiAon to reflecAon both on and during experiences that the anAcipaAon of a challenging situaAon also sAmulated reflecAon. PracAcing professionals vary in their tendency and ability to reflect. Davies idenAfies that there are both benefits as well as limitaAons to reflecAve pracAce:
Benefits to Reflec6ve Prac6ce • Increased learning from an experience for situaAon • PromoAon of deep learning • IdenAficaAon of personal and professional strengths and areas for improvement • IdenAficaAon of educaAonal needs
• AcquisiAon of new knowledge and skills • Further understanding of own beliefs, altudes and values • Encouragement of self-‐moAvaAon and self-‐directed learning • Could act as a source of feedback • Possible improvements of personal and clinical confidence
Suggested ways to pracAce reflecAve management include: • Coaching; • Keeping a journal; • Seeking feedback; • View experiences objecAvely; and • Taking Ame at the end of each day, meeAng, experience etc. to reflect-‐on-‐acAons. • Anecdotal Notes • Group discussion
TOOLS FOR SELF REFLECTION
Experien6al Learning ExperienAal learning is the process of making meaning from direct experience. Simply put, ExperienAal Learning is learning from experience. The experience can be staged or leb open. Aristotle once said, "For the things we have to learn before we can do them, we learn by doing them." David A. Kolb helped to popularize the idea of experienAal learning drawing heavily on the work of John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, and Jean Piaget. His work on experienAal learning has contributed greatly to expanding the philosophy of experienAal educaAon.
Overview ExperienAal learning is learning through reflecAon on doing, which is oben contrasted with rote or didacAc learning. ExperienAal learning is related to, but not synonymous with, experienAal educaAon, acAon learning, adventure learning, free choice learning, cooperaAve learning, and service learning. While there are relaAonships and connecAons between all these theories of educaAon, importantly they are also separate terms with separate meanings. ExperienAal learning focuses on the learning process for the individual. It is oben used synonymously with the phrase experienAal educaAon, however, while experienAal learning considers the individual learning process, experienAal educaAon should be considered a broader philosophy of educaAon. As such, it is concerned with issues such as the relaAonship of teacher and student, as well as broader issues of educaAonal structure and objecAves. An example of experienAal learning is going to the zoo and learning through observaAon and interacAon with the zoo environment, as opposed to reading about animals from a book. Thus, one makes discoveries and experiments with knowledge firsthand, instead of hearing or reading about others' experiences. Further, in business school, internship and job-‐
shadowing opportuniAes in a student’s field of interest are elevated as examples of valuable experienAal learning which contribute significantly to the student’s overall understanding of the real-‐Ame environment. ExperienAal learning can exist without a teacher and relates solely to the meaning making process of the individual's direct experience. However, though the gaining of knowledge is an inherent process that occurs naturally, for a genuine learning experience to occur, there must exist certain elements. According to David A. Kolb, an American educaAonal theorist, knowledge is conAnuously gained through both personal and environmental experiences. He states that in order to gain genuine knowledge from an experience, certain abiliAes are required: 1. 2. 3. 4. the learner must be willing to be ac:vely involved in the experience; the learner must be able to reflect on the experience; the learner must possess and use analy:cal skills to conceptualize the experience; and the learner must possess decision making and problem solving skills in order to use the new ideas gained from the experience.
Implementa6on
ExperienAal
learning can be a highly effecAve educaAonal method. ExperienAal acAviAes are among the most powerful teaching and learning tools available. ExperienAal learning requires self-‐iniAaAve, an ‘intenAon to learn’ and an ‘acAve phase of learning’. Kolb's cycle of experienAal learning can be used as a framework for considering the different stages involved. Moon has elaborated on this cycle to argue that experienAal learning is most effecAve when it involves: 1) a ‘reflec(ve learning phase’ 2) a phase of learning resul(ng from the ac(ons inherent to experien(al learning, and 3) ‘a further phase of learning from feedback’. This process of learning can result in ‘changes in judgement, feeling or skills’ for the individual and can provide direcAon for the ‘making of judgements as a guide to choice and acAon’. Most educators understand the important role experience plays in the learning process. The role of emoAon and feelings in learning from experience has been recognised as an important part of experienAal learning. While those factors may improve the likelihood of experienAal learning occurring, it can occur without them. For example, prison inmates may benefit from experienAal learning in the absence of fun, laughter, or respect. Rather, what is vital in experienAal learning is that the individual is encouraged to directly involve themselves in the experience, and then to reflect on their experiences using analyAc skills, in order that they gain a beger understanding of the new knowledge and retain the informaAon for a longer Ame. According to learning consultant, experienAal learning is about creaAng an experience where learning can be facilitated. It should be noted that this theory does not tend to be culturally inclusive and learners who hold varying pedagogical preferences may not fit with Kolb’s perspecAve. While it is the learner's experience that is most important to the learning process, it is also important not to forget the wealth of experience a good facilitator also brings to the situaAon. However, while a "facilitator", tradiAonally called a "teacher", may improve the likelihood of experienAal learning occurring, a "facilitator" is not essenAal to experienAal learning. Rather, the mechanism of experienAal learning is the learner's reflecAon on experiences using analyAc skills. This can occur without the presence of a facilitator, meaning that experienAal learning is not defined by the presence of a facilitator. Yet, by considering
experienAal learning in developing course or program content, it provides an opportunity to develop a framework for adapAng varying teaching/learning techniques into the classroom.
I.
LEARNING STYLES
Learning styles is a term generally used to describe an individual's natural or habitual pagern of acquiring and processing informaAon in learning situaAons. There is no commonly accepted definiAon of learning styles; however, a core concept is that individuals differ in how they learn. The idea of individualized "learning styles" originated in the 1970s, and acquired "enormous popularity". Proponents for the use of learning styles in educaAon said that teachers should assess the learning styles of their students and adapt their classroom methods to best fit each student's learning style. Although there is ample evidence for differences in individual thinking and ways of processing various types of informaAon, few studies have reliably tested the validity of using learning styles in educaAon.[2]. CriAcs say there is no evidence that idenAfying an individual student's learning style produces beger outcomes. There is evidence of empirical and pedagogical problems related to the use of learning tasks to "correspond to differences in a one-‐to-‐one fashion" [3] [4]. Well-‐designed studies contradict the widespread "meshing hypothesis", that a student will learn best if taught in a method deemed appropriate for the student's learning style.
Learning style inventories Learning style inventories are designed to help respondents determine which learning style they have. These inventories typically take the form of a quesAonnaire that focuses on how people prefer to learn. Respondents choose the answers that most closely resemble their own preferences. It is useful to idenAfy strengths and weaknesses that corresponds to set up the goals
Kolb's Learning Style Inventory (LSI) Perhaps one of the best-‐known and most widely used quesAonnaires is the Learning Style Inventory (LSI) based upon Kolb's learning styles. The computerized assessment allows students to discover their learning style and also provides informaAon on how educators can use this informaAon to best serve students as well as possible strategies for accommodaAng different learning styles.
Peter Honey and Alan Mumford's model Two adaptaAons were made to Kolb's experienAal model. Firstly, the stages in the cycle were renamed to accord with managerial experiences of decision making/problem solving. The Honey & Mumford stages are: • Having an experience • Reviewing the experience • Concluding from the experience • Planning the next steps.
Secondly, the styles were directly aligned to the stages in the cycle and named AcAvist, Reflector, Theorist and PragmaAst. These are assumed to be acquired preferences that are adaptable, either at will or through changed circumstances, rather than being fixed personality characterisAcs. The Honey & Mumford Learning Styles QuesAonnaire (LSQ) is a self-‐development tool and differs from Kolb's Learning Style inventory by inviAng managers to complete a checklist of work-‐related behaviors without directly asking managers how they learn. Having completed the self-‐assessment, managers are encouraged to focus on strengthening under uAlised styles in order to become beger equipped to learn from a wide range of everyday experiences. A MORI survey commissioned by The Campaign for Learning[9] in 1999 found the Honey & Mumford LSQ to be the most widely used system for assessing preferred learning styles in the local government sector in the UK.
Fleming's VARK Learning Style Ques(onnaire In Fleming's VARK learning style model, learners are idenAfied as one of four different types: visual, auditory, reading/ wriAng and kinestheAc. In 1987, he developed a quesAonnaire based upon his model that was designed to help people learn more about their individual style. The model and quesAonnaire quickly became very popular among students and educators, and both remain widely used today.
Jackson's Learning Styles Profiler (LSP) The Learning Style Profiler (LSP) is based upon Chris J. Jackson's hybrid model of learning in personality. Jackson's model suggests that learning styles are influenced by a variety of factors including experience, personal choice and biology. The profiler is designed to assess how people learn at work, so it is oben used in organizaAonal and business selngs.
II.
REFLECTIVE WRITINGS
ReflecAve wriAng is wriAng which involves '… consideraAon of the larger context, the meaning, and the implicaAons of an experience or acAon' In medical and health science courses you are required to produce reflecAve wriAng in order to learn from educaAonal and pracAcal experiences, and to develop the habit of criAcal reflecAon as a future health professional. ReflecAve wriAng may be based on: • descripAon and analysis of a learning experience within the course: -‐ a community placement -‐ a clinical placement -‐ a rural placement • descripAon and analysis of a past experience • review of your learning or course to that point • descripAon and analysis of a criAcal incident.
There are several condiAons for reflecAve wriAng that should be done before and during the project, not only aber them. These includes : • PreparaAon – when you enter into a new experience, try to idenAfy opportuniAes for reflecAon. • Understanding – you need to know what the goals and expectaAons of criAcal reflecAon are. • Time to stop and think. • A level of objecAvity about yourself and the impact of your acAons. • Honesty. • An open, non-‐defensive altude to the experience. • A focus on the deeper levels of meaning – moral, ethical, social and/or professional issues (Branch & Paranjape, 2002) in addiAon to your emoAonal response.
In the workplace, lack of Ame frequently limits opportuniAes for learning through reflecAon. People may not have Ame to stop and think. Similarly, Ame is an issue for students. For students, perhaps the major obstacle to learning through reflecAon is devoAng insufficient Ame to it, and consequently failing to explore the experience in depth. Students someAmes write simply to meet the assessment requirements, without genuinely engaging in the process. This will not lead to meaningful insights or posiAve change.
Common errors in reflec6ve wri6ng
1. Planning You should be thinking about possible subjects and opportuniAes for reflecAve wriAng before and during your placements, not only aber them. 2. Wri6ng style WriAng too informally: just because it is based on your experience does not mean you can ignore academic style. Example
Original text In my opinion, if there are too many 'buts' in my choosing to pracAce in a rural area then I must not be ready for it, so it's beger for me to stay put in the city. Alterna6ve text The reservaAons I currently feel about pracAcing in a rural selng suggest that I am not yet ready for such a move. So at this stage I plan to work in the city on graduaAon.
3. Too lidle or too much detail You need to describe the experience adequately – the reader needs to be given enough detail to understand the context in which the experience occurred. However, it is not enough just to describe the experience in great detail: you
also need to analyse and evaluate the events and the thinking processes involved. You should aim to consider deeper levels of meaning, exploring moral, ethical, social and/or professional issues. Take Ame to organize and structure your wriAng. Try to focus on what was most significant about the experience, and relate it to aspects of your course and future career. Be careful that your wriAng does not seem to simply drib without direcAon or focus.
4. Being judgmental Try to describe events accurately and honestly, but avoid moralizing about people's behavior. Example Original text I was shocked when the doctor showed me the paAent's file without seeking consent. His disregard for the rules regarding paAent consent caused me to lose respect for him and to quesAon his ethical standards. I was surprised when the doctor showed me the paAent's file without seeking consent. It made me realize that discrepancies can exist between what is taught on course and the way in which medicine is pracAced in reality. From my own perspecAve, as a future doctor I would seek to maintain high ethical standards, and to encourage that among staff under my supervision. Alterna6ve text During the second week of my clinical study, I met a paAent who needed an x-‐ray for her knee and hip joint. She was overweight and not very aware of my role as radiographer – she treated me more like a technician than a future doctor. Even worse, she was not cooperaAve, kept murmuring and shouted out about her pain throughout the procedure. Furthermore, this paAent didn't listen to our instrucAons and wouldn't stay sAll aber posiAoning. During the second week of my clinical study, I met a paAent who needed an x-‐ray for her knee and hip joint. This was made more difficult because she was significantly over-‐weight and not very aware of my role as radiographer. She appeared distracted and had difficulty coping with her level of pain, someAmes shouAng out. In terms of the x-‐ray procedure the paAent was uncooperaAve – she did not follow our instrucAons and would not stay sAll aber posiAoning. This made it very difficult to produce an adequate x-‐ray.
It could be useful to analyze this incident further – for example: What surprised me most about this incident was the altude of the paAent to the health professionals. In my culture most people treat health professionals with great respect, and acknowledge their authority; they are even someAmes inAmidated by them. I realized that in the Australian context compliance from the paAent cannot be assumed. The doctor has to gain the trust and cooperaAon of the paAent, and this may not always be easy. In this case I found that talking quietly to the paAent and explaining each requirement in detail reassured her, and ulAmately led to a greater level of cooperaAon. However, this made the consultaAon much longer than it otherwise would have been.
Characteris6cs of reflec6ve wri6ng
• The use of tenses
ReflecAve wriAng oben requires movement between past and present tenses, depending on whether you are recounAng the actual events or making a more general comment (for example, on the doctor-‐paAent relaAonship, or on an aspect of your current course). Generally, when recounAng a parAcular experience or incident, past tense is used. Example 1 As part of my placement at the Echuca Base Hospital I worked closely with the nursing staff. I was impressed by the rapport they had with their paAents – while performing their duAes professionally they oben joked with the paAents, and in that way maintained a relaxed and pleasant atmosphere on the ward. I noAced that the nurses had more regular contact with paAents than the doctors, and consequently seemed to develop a closer relaAonship. Example 2 When two of the paAents became agitated I did not know what to do. I asked them to return to their beds, but they simply ignored me. I did not know what the correct procedure was in this situaAon. When making a general comment, or relaAng an incident to current pracAce or to a parAcular theoreAcal perspecAve, present tense is normally used. Example 3 It seems that the roles of nurses and doctors are quite different, and that doctors need to acknowledge the importance of the nurse-‐paAent relaAonship. Example 4 Clearly making new staff aware of the procedures and rules is important when they join a new workplace or insAtuAon.
• Specula6ve and hypothe6cal wri6ng In reflecAve wriAng you may be asked to speculate about the future, or about a hypotheAcal situaAon. For example, you may be asked to comment on whether you would like to pracAce in a rural area in your future career. NoAce in the example below the movement between past and present tenses, and the use of 'would' when speculaAng about the future. Example 5 Although my rural placement was a very posiAve experience, I would not like to work in the country when I first graduate. There are several reasons for this. Firstly, being a country doctor is more challenging – you do not have the support networks available in the city, so you have to cope with many different situaAons. Also, you have less privacy. In the country I would have to behave as the local doctor all the Ame, 24 hours a day. There would not be an opportunity to just be myself and not worry about what people think. Living in the country I would be far away from my family, and might feel lonely for that reason. Finally, I would have to focus on general pracAce, whereas my interest lies in more specialized areas of medicine. Example 6 As soon as I started there, I could see that having a good working relaAonship with the nurses would make my job much easier, and would possibly result in beger health care for paAents.
• Self reflec6on v self cri6cism Some writers become confused between self-‐reflecAon and self-‐criAcism. You need to go beyond simply admilng a weakness or mistake or failure – what is important is not only what you did, but how you felt, what you have learnt from that experience, and how it will inform your behavior in the future.
Addressing course issues and topics Try not to confine your wriAng to the event and your feelings. If possible, use it to raise new quesAons or to speculate about possible causes and soluAons. Remember where possible to link your reflecAons to theoreAcal aspects of your course. For example:
Original text When the doctor raised his voice to the paAent I felt embarrassed. It reminded me to maintain an appropriate communicaAon style with paAents when I am a doctor. Alterna6ve text When the doctor raised his voice to the paAent I felt embarrassed and the paAent appeared to feel humiliated. Clearly this behavior by the doctor was not appropriate, even though the doctor was obviously frustrated at the paAent's apparent inability to understand the instrucAons. While it is the responsibility of every doctor to behave respec|ully with paAents, on this occasion an excessive workload and the lack of availability of an interpreter no doubt contributed to the doctor's behavior. It reminded me that structural factors within the health care system, such as staffing and budgets, can impact on the quality of agenAon delivered to paAents.
III. Reflec6ve paper
There
are four dimensions in reflecAve paper Dimension 1 Comprehensive observaAons aiming for accuracy and breadth; these observaAons are made through specific frameworks (e.g., past experiences as a school student, BEd studies, or work on Prac.). Dimension 2 Dimension 3 Dimension 4 Comprehensive descripAons of what has been observed. Making meaning of what has been described. Adding depth and breadth to the meanings by asking quesAons about, and relaAng meanings to, a spectrum of personal and professional issues.
Requirements in reflec6ve paper
1.
Always use an event as a way of referring to an idea or theory 2. Emphasis on quesAons: • why something happened, or why something did not happen.
• Ask yourself what was good: why?; what was bad: why?; what was neither good nor bad, yet interesAng and relevant: why? • Think of alternaAves; what other things could have happened and how could you devise ways of making them happen? • Look for other points of view (e.g., what was this like from the students’ perspecAve?). • Look for hidden assumpAons in others’ altudes, and in your own (e.g., what incidents in my own schooling have led me to believe this?; what are the hidden rules in my own culture?). • Parts and qualiAes: look at something as a collecAon of parts(components and relaAonships), but also as a set of qualiAes (e.g., values and judgements). • Look at something from an opposite point of view to challenge it. • Ask who might be advantaged and who might be disadvantaged by current (and new hypotheAcal) responses and acAons.
3. Take the significant words and phrases • best : this seems an insignificant word, but by thinking about it carefully, you will remember to carefully evaluate your list of condiAons so that you only include the most important in your answer. As you do this, you will be asking yourself why is one condiAon more important than another, and through thinking about this your level of response to the quesAon will be deepened. • I feel that...I think...I was aware...I realized...I was uncomfortable about...Looking back, I now think... • Upon reflec:on • AQer observa:on • The significance of this ac:vity • This comment tells me that • It is important for me to realize that • This is significant because • This ac:vity prompted me to • Note that I acknowledge • These comments indicate • It is significant that • This could be more effec:ve if • Con:nuing to reflect on • This helped me to recognize that • I focused on … because • To promote con:nued thinking, I • Because of this event (or comment), I • This helped me to realize • I have greater awareness
• I realized that • The impact of this ac:vity • The evidence of this collabora:on was • The intent of my ques:on was • This helped me to refocus on
IV. Blogging
The
progression in the past decade of blogs from personal web journals to a pla|orm for established professionals, corporaAons and writers has also created opportuniAes for educaAon. Blogs offer students and teachers the chance of • Online discussion • Video posAng • PodcasAng pla|orm • PosAng via email & cell phone • Free web space for class materials • Minimals web skills required • A way to address topics in wriAng
MODELS OF REFLECTION
GIBBS MODEL OF REFLECTION Context • What has happened? Briefly describe the event as objecAvely, accurately and concisely as you can. Who was involved? Where did it happen? Do you intend to focus on the structure, process or outcomes of care? Thoughts • What were your thoughts... ...at the Ame? ...aberwards? Feelings • What were your feelings or emoAons, both posiAve and negaAve... ...at the Ame ? ...aberwards ? Evalua6on • How well did things go? Were things saAsfactorily resolved?
Analyse • What were the factors that affected the outcome? What helped and what hindered? Can you explain the event? Why did it happen? How did it happen? Reframe • What might have been some alternaAve acAons or approaches? What might you have done differently (even when things went well)? Could negaAve events be avoided? Could posiAve events be made more effecAve?
Future ac6on • What will you do if you encounter this kind of situaAon again? What will you do in the future to increase the likelihood of similar posiAve outcomes and minimize the likelihood of similar negaAve outcomes? What do you need to learn? How might you learn this?
JOHN’S MODEL FOR STRUCTURED REFLECTION (2000) This can be used as a guide for analysis of a criAcal incident or general reflecAon on experience. John supports the need for the learner to work with a supervisor throughout the experience. He recommends that the student uses a structured diary. He advises to ‘look in on the situaAon’, which would include focusing on yourself and paying agenAon to your thoughts and emoAons. He then advises to ‘look out of the situaAon’ and write a descripAon of the situaAon around your thoughts and feelings, what you are trying to achieve, why you responded in the way you did, how others were feeling, did you act in the best way, ethical concepts etc. He also considers the use of internal factors, such as expectaAons from others, Ame factors, normal pracAce, anxiety of the situaAon etc.
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