How African States Deal with the Relationship Between Environment and Development.
Explain how African states deal with the relationship between environment and development?
Contents
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1. Abstract 3 2. Introduction 3 3. Historical Context 4 4. Current Perspectives 5 5. Malawi – Introduction 6 6. Background 7 7. Policy Action linking environment and development 8 8. Public Policy in Malawi 8 9. Policy process in Malawi 9 10. Role of Leadership 9 11. Legislation in Malawi 10 12. Environment and Finance 12 13. Case study – Balaka 13 14. Conclusion (Malawi) 14 15. Mali – Introduction 14 16. Natural environment, Natural Resources 15 17. Natural resources Conservation and development 16 18. Policy Initiatives 16 19. Gender and Development 17 20. Civil society and NGOs 17 21. Sustainable Livelihoods 18 22. Conclusion 18 23. References 19
Abstract
Africa has been at the fore of both development and environmental degradation. Too much activity has been happening at an alarming pace in a bid to realise an improved standard of living and emancipation from the quagmire of poverty. Development is a process that equips people to improved standards of living. Long term development can only come about through sustainable management of various assets such as finances, material, human, social, and natural. Natural assets, including soil, water, plants, and animals are central to peoples livelihoods. On the other hand environmental mismanagement and degradation undermines development and threatens future development headway.
INTRODUCTION
Environment is a system which provides natural surroundings for the existence oforganisms (including humans) and which is a prerequisite for their further evolution.Abiotic components of environment (atmosphere, water, minerals, energy etc.) and biotic components of environment (organisms – from the simplest to the most complex) are its main elements. To summarize, it is all which surrounds us. It is noteworthy that this is essentially an anthropocentric (non-biological) definition perceiving environment as one in which a man can live. The opinions on what development is to actually mean have passed great evolution in thelast half of century according toBond (2002), and there is no consensus on how to define this notion at present. Bond (2002), further states that thecauses of this differentiation can be found in the historical contexts of the approaches todevelopment. Economic growth was regarded as central to the development endeavoursup to the 1980 's. Gradually, development came to be interpreted as multidimensionalconcept which should encompass material, social, environmental, political and culturalcomponents (with all of them having a direct impact on the quality of human life). Thisway it was recognised that there is no single model of development appropriate anddesirable for all countries. At the same time emerged the idea of „sustainabledevelopment“, emphasising the questions related to demographic processes, considerateuse of natural resources and mutual influences between a human and his livingenvironment. According to the World Bank report 2009, without ecosystems, there would be no life. Ecosystems provide the food we eat and thematerials we use for shelter and fuel, and theyensure the quality of the air we breathe andthe water we drink. Yet in Africa and aroundthe world we are seeing an unprecedenteddecline in the state of our environment as aresult of humanity’s escalating demand fornatural resources. Erosion of natural capitalis endangering our future prosperity andundermining efforts to enable Africa’s growingpopulation to move out of poverty.
The relationship between environment and development continues to be a dilemma for most African states. Africa in its totality is a continent that is blessed with its adequate human resources, technocrats and experts in the area of development, endowed with the ‘richest’ human cultural diversity, as well as being the mother of the human race. Managed effectively and properly Africa could storm and propel herself from the deepend of economic and political mire to being one the most resourceful regions of the world. However this is in my view were Africa seem to lagging behind, however there is need for African governments to turn the abundant resources available into tangible outward manifestation. African governments therefore should tap the vast diverse local cultures and relay them into productive development ventures. Liberal development policies, favourable political atmosphere, dynamic model of governance,including educational and training programmes that identify and promote innovative practical skills, Achoka Awori (2006). According to Achoka Awori (2006), Africa has had enough of unworkable development formulae and technical fixes hatched from outside however Africa requires true and tangible resource
Historical Context
Support by way of substantial investment and development capital. This paper will elaborate in detail how African states deal with the relationship between environment and development in general while in depth analysis will be done using two African countries namely Malawi and Mali.
Conservation and management of Africa`s vast natural resources can be said to be primarily the symptoms of the deep rooted long term effects of colonial domination by the countries from the North. Distracting materialistic foreign cultures, norms and traditions have negatively impacted African local customs resulting in the disintegration of richly endowed African cultural fabric, indigenous systems of natural resource management, conservation and management treasured in the multiplicity of Africa`s ethnic nationalities and boundary lines. Achoka (2006), however submits that thesecomplex relationships with nature, founded in diverse religious beliefs, taboos, myths and totems were responsible for the maintenance of Africa`s diverse and abundant biological resources for a very long time.
Current perspectives
There is a continuously widening gap on the management of environment and development in Africa, Africa`s natural resources are not valued for their genuine cultural, ecological and economic wealth. The cultural value of Africa`s natural resources, as dictated by the ethnic nationalities owning them is totally ignored.Law enforcement agents and policy makers continue drafting the same towards cultural significance of natural resources in Africa’s wild horizons, game parks, conservation parks and the forests at largehowever turning a blind eye on the indigenous communities from the same locations. Development being a social process towards betterment on people`s quality of living. Development in essence should be transparent, participative and subject to renewal or rejection after a period predetermined by the people. Achoka (2006) states that further to this, development the social and moral improvement of every member of society, empower peoples control and participation in the management of natural resources, enhances spiritual and cultural enrichment of the people, and ensures full control of their destiny. Africa has by large however attempted to redress the felt gap between environment and development. Any form of development has a direct impact on the surrounding environment, it is within this context that most perceived development projects have not been sustained. There is need for incorporation and consideration off stakeholders in any development project. Government policy and Non-governmental organisation policy on ‘selling’ purported development projects to the people have proved a failure and should be discarded immediately paving way rather for a more participative development process, whereby the locals are included in the decision making process as they have an appreciative approach to their surrounding and immediate environment. Achoka (2006) however argues that,the relationship between environment and development in most African countries is not at a breakeven point as the North continues to unsustainably exploit the earth resources in Africa, the theory of sustainable development dictates that those with the capacity to exploit global resources maintain the same level of exploitation, while the poor and weak retain the existing levels of declining development and standards of living. Thus the imbalances experienced in managing environment and development has made it inevitable for the orchestration of rather stringent policy by most African states in their quest to redress the emergent imbalances by ensuring equity in political, ideological and cultural influences in the management and exploitation of global resources to be adopted.
Achoka 2006, cite population as very important ingredient of development. He postulates that, people should not be viewed as a problem but as a resource to be mobilised for positive development, the same should be used for mobilising their creative ability and potentials harnessed towards development endeavours. Most importantly, the ethics of people as custodians and managers of natural resources should therefore be promoted in all development programmes.
MALAWI
INTRODUCTION
Malawi is a former British colony which gained its independence in 6 July 1964, it has a sub-tropical climate with a vast range on natural resources such as, limestone, arable land, and hydropower, unexploited deposits of uranium, coal and bauxite. Deforestation, land degradation, water pollution from agricultural runoff, sewerage, industrial wastes, siltation of spawning grounds endangers fish populations. Malawi is however signatory to quite a number of environmental international agreement which include, party to biodiversity, climate change Kyoto protocol, desertification endangered species, marine life conservation among many others. With a total population of 16,323,044 and Lilongwe established as the capital city. Most African have drafted and designed future plans on their desired ends in stages of five year plans and in some cases even ten and beyond. Malawi is no different, according to Bass (2011), Malawi has a long-term vision of attaining a technologically driven, middle income economy by the year 2020, emphasising environmental sustainability as a primary foundation for the vision. Endowed with its vast natural resources which include rich soils, and biodiversity and water bodies. Bass (2011), further dictates that the Malawi growth and development strategy which is the country`s medium term national development strategy, places climate change, environment and natural resources as one of its key priority areas, thus indicating a commitment to good environmental and natural resources management as a stepping stone towards sustainable development and poverty reduction.
BACKGROUND
Malawi despite being enormously blessed with a vast variety of natural resources the country continues to lag behind on the development arena. The aggregate resources do not match the standards of living, thus the label ‘third world country’ is affixed to the country. However this imbalance existing between the resources against the standard of living is what policy and planning by the authorities are toiling to impede. The task is not however considerations into key decisions and development in general are a mammoth task which is informed by approaches that have worked even up to this day. Malawi has achieved relatively appreciable results by bringing together expert groups from fields of expertise which include government, business, nongovernmental organisations and academia. Malawi has developed quite an experience on environment mainstreaming. According to Mmangisa (2011), The Ministry of Development Planning and Cooperation (MDPC) recognises the need to ensure that Malawi`s environmental assets support people`s wellbeing and moreover to ensure Malawi`s development patterns are not environmentally damaging. Malawi has managed therefore to effectively mainstream environmental considerations into key determinants and institutions determining development quite well especially in Government.
Malawians lead a largely agricultural life and sustained economy,taking advantage of the soil types that are found in Malawi, thus 85% practice rain fed agriculture as they totally depend on the quality of their environment. Quality of the environment is considered whilst incorporating such variables as soil, water, forest cover and biodiversity. The dependence factor of these variables is of utmost importance in Malawi though prone to environmental hazards at times i.e. floods and drought. The ever increasing population growth however is of much concern to the government of Malawi. The population increase rate stands at 6% per year. This has however affected the positive development which Malawians were enjoying as the result has been the increased rise in slum dweller, street children which has actually made it even more difficult in offering services to the public through refuse collection, access to clean water and sanitation. Furthermore the increasing gap between the rich and the poor has had a contributory hand towards the same. A common narrative in policy discussions about development and the environment is that the poor are both agents and victims of environmental degradation (WCED, 1987).
According to Monica Fisher (2004), an estimate for Malawi`s deforestation rate is 2.4% per annum and stands as the highest southern Africa (FAO 2001). The interplay of high population density, poverty, forest reliance in rural areas, and weak forest management institutions have however created challenges to conservation of Malawi`s forests. Key forests threats are clearing for agricultural expansion and high demand for wood fuels (GOM 1998a). Furthermore the environmental damage on forest cover as local people work towards supplementing their income from selling firewood and wood used for fuel purposes make it inevitable for damage to be done to the environment. This is further exacerbated by the fact that 90% of the labour force and working population on Malawi is employed and engaged in agriculture sector while 10% is employed in the manufacturing and service industry. Thus the land pressure is quite high in Malawi as much of the arable land is used for agricultural purposes. Most importantly 54% of Malawians leave below the poverty datum line and this has a negative effect on the environment as most the locals work and depend on the environment to supplement their incomes.
Policy action linking environment and development
Effectively combining and cementing environment and natural resource management in the public policies in Malawi is imperative. Whilst there is great need for properly planning, meaningfully managingand guardedly governing the environmental capital in a poor economy like Malawi, where 54% of the population falls below the poverty line (National Statistical Office, 2008). In effort to achieve a stable national development, integrating environment sustainability should be made a priorityforpublic policy-making. Public policies when properly grafted work towards administrative and political tools devices through which the peoples desires to socially as well as economically advance their standard of living
Mechanisms by which the aspirations of the people to socially and economically improve their standard of living become confirmed and conversed.
Public policy in Malawi
Malawi as a nation is very muchdevoted to responsible environmental management. These cascades down from the highest top level constitutional mandate spelt out in the constitution of Malawi that enhances progressive adoption and enforcement of policy and legislation towards managing the environment responsibly. (Malawi Government,1995). Publication of designed policy in Malawi through Government Gazettes, statutory instruments and bylaws has made Malawi enjoy better environmental management making it possible to experience some form of meaningful development. However there is need to apply punitive and corrective action on such offenders who would have been found guilty of an environmental offence. There is need for massive educational training, that the masses be conscientised of the same.
Policy processes in Malawi
The policy making process in Malawi has proved efficient as it is managed by technocrats, who despite their vast experience and expertise are humble enough to consult, listen and learn from the people at grass roots level including the several stakeholders. Such stakeholders responsible for funding, and politicians in the executiveand legislative branches of government, are especially key for input and direction. Issues of environmental sustainability are therefore factored into the development plan, thus managed effectively. A classic example would be the high duty taxes imposed by the Government of Malawi on imported second hand vehicle from developed countries following a study that proved that the same vehicles were drivers of climate change because of pollution from gases emitted. According to Fisher (2004), such government directives can be a relatively quick measure for addressing undesirable challenges against the environment and human welfare. It requires, however, a well-resourced and managed bureau of standards toprevent harmful products from reaching Malawian soil; to withdraw them if they are already onthe market and in circulation; to ensure that Malawi accepts only the best environmental standardsthrough imports; and, at the same time, to build on the best indigenous technologies thatsatisfactorily work for the poor and the environment
Role of leadership
Political icons and leaders in Malawi have also made it a priority during their tenure of office to develop the country into a green economy. The late State President Ngwazi Professor Bingu Wa Mutharika
Was passionate and worked towards eradicating the poverty that entangled the citizens of the country. Several investments towards turning Malawi from being largely an importer and consumer, into being a rather much more substantial producer and exporter. His major vision was poverty elimination, thus encouraged tapping into the vast environmental resources to promote development and improved standards of living for the largely agrarian economy, hence promoting a green economy. President Wa Mutharika took cognisance of the vital role of climate change control, natural resource management and environmental sustainability on the creation of wealth and employment for the Malawians. Fisher (2004). There is however need to observe that, an intense commitment to work towards improved standards of living, and reducing poverty unconsciously expose and make the environment vulnerable if not much care is exercised in striking a balance, between the gross national product, community production, and per capita income where different forms of wealth are required.Ability to maintain an even balance between environmental assets and other forms of wealth (financial, physical, social, among many others) proves to be critical. Fisher (2004), postulates that, theeconomy has been growing steadily for the last six years. The highest growth rate of 9.7per cent per annum attained in 2008 made the country the second fastest growing economyin the world (Ministry of Development Planning and Cooperation, undated). However Bass (2011), submits that there areacknowledgements, notably by the State President and cabinet ministers amongst many, of thedownside of the unbalanced and irresponsible use of the resources at Malawi’s disposal.Malawi has embarked on quite a number of development projects which however require proper handling for the objective to be realised lest the project be done and implemented in vain. On the other hand the government of Malawi has to be credited for implementing such development programmes and effectively applying appropriate policy mechanisms. According to Fisher (2004)These policies have led to the government’s outstanding self-sufficiency in food (Office of thePresident and Cabinet, 2010) overwhelmingly owes its success to the utility of the environment.
LEGISLATION IN MALAWI
In their quest to combat effectively on the relationship between environment and development, the responsible authorities in Malawi have largely used the environment outlook report process as a major mainstreaming instrument. To address the seemingly important factors several and major instrument actors within the frame work have been included and these are, the National Environment Action Plan (NEAP, 1994), provisions of the Environmental Management Act (EMA,1996), including environment authorities, Malawian experts, supported by aid and donor funding. The government of Malawi has been relatively able in combating the relationship between environment and development as the two are almost inseparable but require effective, proper planning and management. Development can be a result of the manipulation of the surrounding environment as the locals tap into the wealth of their surroundings for economically rewarding investment within the same area while improper management of the similar process may result in environmental degradation for no reward economically but rather further deteriorate the environment conditions thus endangering the future climatic conditions. The ability by the government of Malawi in managing the relationship between environment and development has made it inevitable for gathering data and making a clear case for environmental investment for poverty reduction, hence enjoying improved standards of living for the people which inevitably become development. However important to note is the element of time as this development evolves over some time of much input and investment thus requires much dedication and principles as such development begin showing trends and effects of investment over time. One very important benefit of this process which Malawians have grasped accordingly is that , there is clarity on how environment affects people, and engagement of many groups in the environment outlook process, links the same to closely to social and economic users. Development thus is achieved and do not just come by on a silver platter. According to Yassin (2004), the time has come for improved investment in the environment , which in turn requires investment in good environmental information, ground trothing that information locally, and making it available to those whose awareness and decisions need to be strengthened. Yassin (2004), states that Malawi is endowed with a vast natural resource base, including some of the most fertile soils in Southern Africa for agricultural purposes, closed forest resources, abundant water resources and a remarkably diverse flora and fauna of which rich fish resources stand out. The author submits that if these resources are properly tapped and utilised, these resources can provide the basis for the sustainable socio economic development of the country.
In general one is therefore tempted to argue that, despite the large natural resources Africa is endowed with, the same do not account for the current state of affairs in most African countries. Thus were could Africa at large be going wrong, Malawi as noted from the above, is endowed with a variety of natural resources but continues to be entangled in the quagmire of poverty and underdevelopment. This therefore leaves one to conclude that despite the various natural resources existing in Malawi, the level of development does not account for the large deposits of natural resources thus despite the attempt by the government of Malawi to effectively tap resources and translate the same into meaningful development is far from achieved. Malawians continue plummeting in poverty and in some instances have been rescued by foreign aid from several donor states. The environment is exposed to increasing pressure, exacerbated by the high population growth and low level of environmental awareness, and that pressure contributes considerably to the vicious cycle of poverty. This poses crucial hindrances to both economic growth and environmental management. Thus according to Yassin 2004, the ability to keep the environment and natural resources under continuous review is a very critical aspect for informed decision making.
Environment and finance
According to Boyd Hamella 2006, it is time to account for the significant economic contribution of the environment to our daily lives. If we did so we would get a true picture of the value of our economy, which would encourage us to delink economic growth from environmental degradation. While Michael Mmangisa 2004, states that, policy makers need evidence that investment in sustainable environmental and natural resources management is effective in achieving the policy priorities of economic growth, food security and poverty reduction. Whilst most African countries have improved their understanding of the importance of the environment in recent years, spurred by international agreements concerning global public goods, this has not often been reflected in key economic decisions and institutional frameworks that shape national development, Fisher (2004).
Within the 28 districts throughout Malawi, the government established local government authorities named councils. The government conferred power on the local government authorities to lookafter the welfare of the people falling within their scope of operations and administrative jurisdiction and this includes, provision of clean water, refuse and garbage collection and promotion of infrastructure and economic development through the formulation and execution of local development plans among many others. The council is further responsible for environmental services, environmental reclamation and environmental education. Section 6 of the local government act 1998 provides a legal basis for such functions and responsibilities. According to Fisher 2004, the local government authorities in some districts have managed to combat environmental degradation problems by introducing projects to the local people.
TheBalaka case –beekeeping as an incentive for villagers to conserve the environment: source Mark Fisher (2004) * According to Fisher2004, environmental problems in Balaka include deforestation, due to the dependence on charcoal production for household livelihoods, bush fires, due to dependence on mice for household livelihoods, land degradation, due to bush fires and deforestation, and ensuing soil erosion and the consequent siltation of rivers. Balaka district council realised that it would be difficult to solve these environmental problems with a sectorial approach and sought an integrated planning approach that focused on the household as the key actor. The council however sensitised local people to alternative sources of livelihood that would enhance and foster natural resource management. The council introduces the following economic activities: * Beekeeping to reduce economic pressures for deforestation. * Mushroom growing within the beekeeping area to reduce economic dependence on beekeeping alone and also to utilise resources that would not be used by beekeeping. * Fruit growing within the beekeeping area to increase the number of trees that flower at different times of the year, as well as to reduce over reliance on beekeeping for livelihood. * Fisheries production also to reduce dependence on charcoal for livelihood and to make wider use of districts environmental assets. * Alternative stoves, that are solar powered and energy saving stoves (Chitetezo Mbaula), to reduce use of charcoal.
The council affected a number of projects to encourage positive transformation in most communities at grass root level, most of which were structured around beekeeping. Fisher states that, the communities were informed that bees require good husbandry techniques as they need water and trees that flower at different times and seasons of the year, thus they should avoid soil erosion and siltation of water bodies. This however managed to effect change and transformation of normative behaviours that had since evolved over time. Where communities traditionally set veld fires in order to clear land for the purposes of catching mice, they were advised that bees do not like smoke, and bushfires would drive the bees away. Communities were further advised that bees would collect nectar from a radius of 10 kilometres and therefore need a habitat of that size if they are to be productive, thus nailing in the message that economically viable beekeeping is inconsistent with deforestation.
Conclusion
It can therefore be concluded from the above that, Malawi is more dependent on environmental assets with over 85% of Malawians involved in agricultural production; however the country also is very vulnerable to natural evnvironmental risks which include flooding, drought and partially climate change. Of concern however is the management of environment against development. If the stocks and flows of environmental resources are property managed and harnessed, Malawi could develop a green economy, wealth generation and social justice, all within the ecological limits. To effectively combat this gap there is therefore need to bridge this arising gap through environmental mainstreaming , the need to effectively integrate the environment into development policies, plans, and budgets as well as every day management is of utmost importance. Leadership in Malawi should be credited for coming up with such policy and statutory instruments governing the nature and use of land and natural resources towards the development of the nation at large. Decentralisations of local governance bodies through local authority councils has made possible conservation of natural resources at grass root level possible as well as implement income generating projects from the same environment; however there is need to broaden the scope of such projects if meaningful development is to be achieved. Malawi has however to a lesser extent managed to manage the relationship between environment and development.
MALI
INTRODUCTION
Formerly made up the Sudanese republic and only to be renamed to Mali in 1960 after obtaining independence from France. Mali enjoys a subtropical to arid climate. Mali faces several environmental issues which include deforestation, soil erosion, desertification, inadequate supplies of potable water and poaching among many others. Mali has a total population of about 15, 494, 466 and is rated among the 25 poorest countries in the world. Largely dependent on gold mining and agricultural exports for revenue. Mali is an agricultural economy and therefore exerts too much pressure on the environment. Mali is considered a very poor state as it is ranked among the 25 poorest nations on the globe thus, the continued toiling, suffering experienced by the locals make it inevitable for the country to continue sinking in the poverty trap. Mismanagement of the available natural resources also further exacerbates the poverty rate accompanied by violent conflictresurgence in Mali. On the other hand in Mali there is need for development policy to be enshrined in the environmental use and capacity building both at grass root level and macro levels. Sustainable development includes a number of interdependent variables, including environmental, social, economic, and natural resources. Environmental protection constitutes a very important aspect of sustainable development, the environment if properly exploited forms a gateway to economic prosperity and development.
Natural environment, Natural resources- Mali
According to Traore (1998), Mali`s multi-cultural society is based on the Niger river which flows for 1700kilometres through Mali, the natural trade route between the forest producers of cola nuts and gold in the south, and the desert producers, while a century of declining rainfall has increased pressure on scarce natural resources coupled with very high temperatures has even worsened the pressure exerted on the environment in an attempt to make ends meet. Northern Mali faces severe economic and ecological challenges. The exploitation of arid and semi-arid lands affects the whole of human kind. Excessive monoculture has impacted negatively the soil texture and fertility. The continued search for economic gain has resulted in the degrading of agricultural and forest resources in Mali, creating more marginal lands, eroding Mali`s economic and ecological capital. Traore 2008, submits that the government on Mali needs to husband its natural resources while exploiting them productively if any meaningful development is to be realised. He further postulates that ,it is environmentally sound to exploit but not to over exploit the available resources.
The link between environmental degradation and poverty in Mali becomes central, poverty is a pressing issue and the need to feed the population after drought has taken toll over long-term environmental concerns such as climate change or the loss of biodiversity. Key natural areas of concern in Mali therefore become desertification, water scarcity, soil and water conservation issues. Food security has become a pre occupation to the poor, thus the biological need to fend for one`s family and oneself, has resulted to an over intensive use of the limited natural resources available to them. The people of Mali have thus been forced to make trade-offs between immediate foods needs and longer term environmentalsustainability, both in production and consumption, Joseph Mullen (2002). The people’s vulnerable economic position however therefore drives them into abuse of natural resources available and at their disposal.
Natural resources conservation and development
Findings from the World Summit for social Development (United Nations, 1995) denote that, a close linkage between protecting traditional land rights, strengthening land management in the areas of pastoral and nomadic activity, building on traditional communal practices, and protecting communities from encroachment. Mullen 2002, submits that this rational approach to conservation is related to protecting human livelihoods and reducing poverty through developing improved systems of range management, consolidating access to clean water, and production factors such as education and technical advice. With particular emphasis on traditional forms of sustainable agriculture and animal husbandry.
Whilst the government of Mali has made several strides in their attempt to effectively manage the relationship between environment and development not much result has been yielded as yet largely because of the vulnerability of the population to poverty. The government has not done much to gain confidence of the population in the ability of the government to turn around their fortunes into a more productive and functional economy. The continued over exploitation of land and other natural resources including bio-diversity has made it intolerable for the effective management of development and environment. Whilst over exploitation of natural resources from the surrounding environment has effectively resulted in degradation and dilapidation of the environment further plummeting the people into serious poverty.
Policy initiatives
Considerable effort has been made by farmers union, civil action groups and many other related groups to have access to land and land ownership rights however these have been met with a deaf ear by the government. Mullen 2002, submits that land tenure is of utmost importance in managing the relationship between environment and development. Moreover he is of the view that, land rights legislation be included in the enabling framework to ensure that natural resources are adequately protected from speculation and capital development. There is need for the government along with the leadership of Mali to draft policy and instrument on land ownership if sensical development is to be realised, the legislative framework should however include ,land ownership rights, land zoning for agricultural purposes, cadastral surveys, commercial, forest rangeland and settlement uses. Currently the Malian legislation only covers two registration aspects of access to land ownership which include the registration of untitled land in the name of the state, and the transfer and recording of titles in the name of the person who they have been assigned or allocated. The fact that there is no land ownership for farmers however makes the rampant misuse of the environment unavoidable as the land and environment is handled without much due care but rather negligently.
Gender and environment
The government of Mali has covered much ground however from the gendered for of development and environmental conservation. Women have been empowered to a greater extent as they occupy the front line relationship with land, water resources, fuel wood and small livestock. This gendered development has however gone a milestone in success of arresting environmental degradation. Involvement of women in policy, making that affect the environment, and the development of more energy efficient cooking systems were developed. Women are the custodians of the forest and water bodies as culturally it has been that women gather firewood and fetch water from the surrounding environment. The government of Mali noticed this and took advantage of it by targeting women in an attempt to conserve the environment, and is enjoying relative success, however such developments could be undermined by rising levels of poverty in the country as citizens would opt to complement their incomes by engaging in environmentally damaging activities and bio-diversitydepleting coping strategies such as using fishing nets that capture tinny fish, commonly known as kapenta.
Civil society and Non-governmental organisations
Isolated initiatives have proven to fail the government of Mali in their quest to manage the relationship between environment and development. The government has managed the relationship between environment and development to a greater extent by engaging the civil society groups and Non-governmental organisations the government of Mali engaged people with technical know-how on the development fraternity after realising that isolated initiatives have little impact in a sustainable environmental conservation. A broad coalition of the civil society groups, local government, business organisations and NGOs, particularly those dedicated to conservation have proven effective in lobbying government and creating public awareness of conservation and natural resource management issues among the community of citizens in Mali.
Sustainable livelihoods
Largely an indicator of development and proven management of natural resources are relatively observed in sustainable livelihoods. In Mali the rural folks have a number of basic elements in sustainable livelihoods. Agricultural intensification has been the common source of livelihood in Mali, however following the government’s plan and initiative to focus on conservation of natural resources and promote development simultaneously. According to (Scoones, 1998). The sustainable livelihood strategy could include poverty reduction, improvedwell-being, and ensured sustainability of natural resource base and enhanced livelihood resilience. Analysing social, natural, and socio-economic capital is to analyse the renewable natural resource base of crop production, fisheries and forestry in function of stakeholders, poverty reduction, social capital and gender (ODA, 1996), Mullen 2002, argues that this will lead to responsible activities appropriate to natural resources conservation and sustainable livelihoods in Mali, hence the end result being development. The government of Mali has managed to establish an operational framework for a productive partnership between resource conservation and sustainable rural livelihoods, incorporating a range of cropping systems, livestock, agro forestry, and fisheries system that maintain let alone increase productivity of the natural resource base, including land, water, plants and animals. The Malian government has managed to introduce systems that promote sustainable methods of agriculture as well as methods that maintain soil fertility and texture even improving the same in some instances, despite the high levels of poverty Mali has progressively managed to effectively deal with the relationship between environment and development, though the alarming poverty levels threaten to disintegrate the achieved development growth economically and the environmental sound policies that promote and dictate appropriate usage of arable land and the surrounding environment.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, it can therefore be clearly noted from the above outline that, though Mali being a relatively poor state ranked among the 25 least poorcountries, it has however managed to establish and maintain a reasonably improving management system of the environment and development. By virtue of being a largely agricultural economy, effects of land and environmental degradation undermining development have been relatively addressed by incorporating women, civil society, nongovernmental organisations and different farming methods and cropping methods in a bid to curb the misuse of the environment and the continued mismanagement of natural resources towards a better and developed nation. Drafts of policy and statutory instruments on land ownership rights and tenure system have been noted with much applause from development practitioners. However the continued entanglement of the masses in Mali in poverty trap seems to be the major threat towards achieving an efficient management policy on environment and development.
References:
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Contents
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1. Abstract 3 2. Introduction 3 3. Historical Context 4 4. Current Perspectives 5 5. Malawi – Introduction 6 6. Background 7 7. Policy Action linking environment and development 8 8. Public Policy in Malawi 8 9. Policy process in Malawi 9 10. Role of Leadership 9 11. Legislation in Malawi 10 12. Environment and Finance 12 13. Case study – Balaka 13 14. Conclusion (Malawi) 14 15. Mali – Introduction 14 16. Natural environment, Natural Resources 15 17. Natural resources Conservation and development 16 18. Policy Initiatives 16 19. Gender and Development 17 20. Civil society and NGOs 17 21. Sustainable Livelihoods 18 22. Conclusion 18 23. References 19
Abstract
Africa has been at the fore of both development and environmental degradation. Too much activity has been happening at an alarming pace in a bid to realise an improved standard of living and emancipation from the quagmire of poverty. Development is a process that equips people to improved standards of living. Long term development can only come about through sustainable management of various assets such as finances, material, human, social, and natural. Natural assets, including soil, water, plants, and animals are central to peoples livelihoods. On the other hand environmental mismanagement and degradation undermines development and threatens future development headway.
INTRODUCTION
Environment is a system which provides natural surroundings for the existence oforganisms (including humans) and which is a prerequisite for their further evolution.Abiotic components of environment (atmosphere, water, minerals, energy etc.) and biotic components of environment (organisms – from the simplest to the most complex) are its main elements. To summarize, it is all which surrounds us. It is noteworthy that this is essentially an anthropocentric (non-biological) definition perceiving environment as one in which a man can live. The opinions on what development is to actually mean have passed great evolution in thelast half of century according toBond (2002), and there is no consensus on how to define this notion at present. Bond (2002), further states that thecauses of this differentiation can be found in the historical contexts of the approaches todevelopment. Economic growth was regarded as central to the development endeavoursup to the 1980 's. Gradually, development came to be interpreted as multidimensionalconcept which should encompass material, social, environmental, political and culturalcomponents (with all of them having a direct impact on the quality of human life). Thisway it was recognised that there is no single model of development appropriate anddesirable for all countries. At the same time emerged the idea of „sustainabledevelopment“, emphasising the questions related to demographic processes, considerateuse of natural resources and mutual influences between a human and his livingenvironment. According to the World Bank report 2009, without ecosystems, there would be no life. Ecosystems provide the food we eat and thematerials we use for shelter and fuel, and theyensure the quality of the air we breathe andthe water we drink. Yet in Africa and aroundthe world we are seeing an unprecedenteddecline in the state of our environment as aresult of humanity’s escalating demand fornatural resources. Erosion of natural capitalis endangering our future prosperity andundermining efforts to enable Africa’s growingpopulation to move out of poverty.
The relationship between environment and development continues to be a dilemma for most African states. Africa in its totality is a continent that is blessed with its adequate human resources, technocrats and experts in the area of development, endowed with the ‘richest’ human cultural diversity, as well as being the mother of the human race. Managed effectively and properly Africa could storm and propel herself from the deepend of economic and political mire to being one the most resourceful regions of the world. However this is in my view were Africa seem to lagging behind, however there is need for African governments to turn the abundant resources available into tangible outward manifestation. African governments therefore should tap the vast diverse local cultures and relay them into productive development ventures. Liberal development policies, favourable political atmosphere, dynamic model of governance,including educational and training programmes that identify and promote innovative practical skills, Achoka Awori (2006). According to Achoka Awori (2006), Africa has had enough of unworkable development formulae and technical fixes hatched from outside however Africa requires true and tangible resource
Historical Context
Support by way of substantial investment and development capital. This paper will elaborate in detail how African states deal with the relationship between environment and development in general while in depth analysis will be done using two African countries namely Malawi and Mali.
Conservation and management of Africa`s vast natural resources can be said to be primarily the symptoms of the deep rooted long term effects of colonial domination by the countries from the North. Distracting materialistic foreign cultures, norms and traditions have negatively impacted African local customs resulting in the disintegration of richly endowed African cultural fabric, indigenous systems of natural resource management, conservation and management treasured in the multiplicity of Africa`s ethnic nationalities and boundary lines. Achoka (2006), however submits that thesecomplex relationships with nature, founded in diverse religious beliefs, taboos, myths and totems were responsible for the maintenance of Africa`s diverse and abundant biological resources for a very long time.
Current perspectives
There is a continuously widening gap on the management of environment and development in Africa, Africa`s natural resources are not valued for their genuine cultural, ecological and economic wealth. The cultural value of Africa`s natural resources, as dictated by the ethnic nationalities owning them is totally ignored.Law enforcement agents and policy makers continue drafting the same towards cultural significance of natural resources in Africa’s wild horizons, game parks, conservation parks and the forests at largehowever turning a blind eye on the indigenous communities from the same locations. Development being a social process towards betterment on people`s quality of living. Development in essence should be transparent, participative and subject to renewal or rejection after a period predetermined by the people. Achoka (2006) states that further to this, development the social and moral improvement of every member of society, empower peoples control and participation in the management of natural resources, enhances spiritual and cultural enrichment of the people, and ensures full control of their destiny. Africa has by large however attempted to redress the felt gap between environment and development. Any form of development has a direct impact on the surrounding environment, it is within this context that most perceived development projects have not been sustained. There is need for incorporation and consideration off stakeholders in any development project. Government policy and Non-governmental organisation policy on ‘selling’ purported development projects to the people have proved a failure and should be discarded immediately paving way rather for a more participative development process, whereby the locals are included in the decision making process as they have an appreciative approach to their surrounding and immediate environment. Achoka (2006) however argues that,the relationship between environment and development in most African countries is not at a breakeven point as the North continues to unsustainably exploit the earth resources in Africa, the theory of sustainable development dictates that those with the capacity to exploit global resources maintain the same level of exploitation, while the poor and weak retain the existing levels of declining development and standards of living. Thus the imbalances experienced in managing environment and development has made it inevitable for the orchestration of rather stringent policy by most African states in their quest to redress the emergent imbalances by ensuring equity in political, ideological and cultural influences in the management and exploitation of global resources to be adopted.
Achoka 2006, cite population as very important ingredient of development. He postulates that, people should not be viewed as a problem but as a resource to be mobilised for positive development, the same should be used for mobilising their creative ability and potentials harnessed towards development endeavours. Most importantly, the ethics of people as custodians and managers of natural resources should therefore be promoted in all development programmes.
MALAWI
INTRODUCTION
Malawi is a former British colony which gained its independence in 6 July 1964, it has a sub-tropical climate with a vast range on natural resources such as, limestone, arable land, and hydropower, unexploited deposits of uranium, coal and bauxite. Deforestation, land degradation, water pollution from agricultural runoff, sewerage, industrial wastes, siltation of spawning grounds endangers fish populations. Malawi is however signatory to quite a number of environmental international agreement which include, party to biodiversity, climate change Kyoto protocol, desertification endangered species, marine life conservation among many others. With a total population of 16,323,044 and Lilongwe established as the capital city. Most African have drafted and designed future plans on their desired ends in stages of five year plans and in some cases even ten and beyond. Malawi is no different, according to Bass (2011), Malawi has a long-term vision of attaining a technologically driven, middle income economy by the year 2020, emphasising environmental sustainability as a primary foundation for the vision. Endowed with its vast natural resources which include rich soils, and biodiversity and water bodies. Bass (2011), further dictates that the Malawi growth and development strategy which is the country`s medium term national development strategy, places climate change, environment and natural resources as one of its key priority areas, thus indicating a commitment to good environmental and natural resources management as a stepping stone towards sustainable development and poverty reduction.
BACKGROUND
Malawi despite being enormously blessed with a vast variety of natural resources the country continues to lag behind on the development arena. The aggregate resources do not match the standards of living, thus the label ‘third world country’ is affixed to the country. However this imbalance existing between the resources against the standard of living is what policy and planning by the authorities are toiling to impede. The task is not however considerations into key decisions and development in general are a mammoth task which is informed by approaches that have worked even up to this day. Malawi has achieved relatively appreciable results by bringing together expert groups from fields of expertise which include government, business, nongovernmental organisations and academia. Malawi has developed quite an experience on environment mainstreaming. According to Mmangisa (2011), The Ministry of Development Planning and Cooperation (MDPC) recognises the need to ensure that Malawi`s environmental assets support people`s wellbeing and moreover to ensure Malawi`s development patterns are not environmentally damaging. Malawi has managed therefore to effectively mainstream environmental considerations into key determinants and institutions determining development quite well especially in Government.
Malawians lead a largely agricultural life and sustained economy,taking advantage of the soil types that are found in Malawi, thus 85% practice rain fed agriculture as they totally depend on the quality of their environment. Quality of the environment is considered whilst incorporating such variables as soil, water, forest cover and biodiversity. The dependence factor of these variables is of utmost importance in Malawi though prone to environmental hazards at times i.e. floods and drought. The ever increasing population growth however is of much concern to the government of Malawi. The population increase rate stands at 6% per year. This has however affected the positive development which Malawians were enjoying as the result has been the increased rise in slum dweller, street children which has actually made it even more difficult in offering services to the public through refuse collection, access to clean water and sanitation. Furthermore the increasing gap between the rich and the poor has had a contributory hand towards the same. A common narrative in policy discussions about development and the environment is that the poor are both agents and victims of environmental degradation (WCED, 1987).
According to Monica Fisher (2004), an estimate for Malawi`s deforestation rate is 2.4% per annum and stands as the highest southern Africa (FAO 2001). The interplay of high population density, poverty, forest reliance in rural areas, and weak forest management institutions have however created challenges to conservation of Malawi`s forests. Key forests threats are clearing for agricultural expansion and high demand for wood fuels (GOM 1998a). Furthermore the environmental damage on forest cover as local people work towards supplementing their income from selling firewood and wood used for fuel purposes make it inevitable for damage to be done to the environment. This is further exacerbated by the fact that 90% of the labour force and working population on Malawi is employed and engaged in agriculture sector while 10% is employed in the manufacturing and service industry. Thus the land pressure is quite high in Malawi as much of the arable land is used for agricultural purposes. Most importantly 54% of Malawians leave below the poverty datum line and this has a negative effect on the environment as most the locals work and depend on the environment to supplement their incomes.
Policy action linking environment and development
Effectively combining and cementing environment and natural resource management in the public policies in Malawi is imperative. Whilst there is great need for properly planning, meaningfully managingand guardedly governing the environmental capital in a poor economy like Malawi, where 54% of the population falls below the poverty line (National Statistical Office, 2008). In effort to achieve a stable national development, integrating environment sustainability should be made a priorityforpublic policy-making. Public policies when properly grafted work towards administrative and political tools devices through which the peoples desires to socially as well as economically advance their standard of living
Mechanisms by which the aspirations of the people to socially and economically improve their standard of living become confirmed and conversed.
Public policy in Malawi
Malawi as a nation is very muchdevoted to responsible environmental management. These cascades down from the highest top level constitutional mandate spelt out in the constitution of Malawi that enhances progressive adoption and enforcement of policy and legislation towards managing the environment responsibly. (Malawi Government,1995). Publication of designed policy in Malawi through Government Gazettes, statutory instruments and bylaws has made Malawi enjoy better environmental management making it possible to experience some form of meaningful development. However there is need to apply punitive and corrective action on such offenders who would have been found guilty of an environmental offence. There is need for massive educational training, that the masses be conscientised of the same.
Policy processes in Malawi
The policy making process in Malawi has proved efficient as it is managed by technocrats, who despite their vast experience and expertise are humble enough to consult, listen and learn from the people at grass roots level including the several stakeholders. Such stakeholders responsible for funding, and politicians in the executiveand legislative branches of government, are especially key for input and direction. Issues of environmental sustainability are therefore factored into the development plan, thus managed effectively. A classic example would be the high duty taxes imposed by the Government of Malawi on imported second hand vehicle from developed countries following a study that proved that the same vehicles were drivers of climate change because of pollution from gases emitted. According to Fisher (2004), such government directives can be a relatively quick measure for addressing undesirable challenges against the environment and human welfare. It requires, however, a well-resourced and managed bureau of standards toprevent harmful products from reaching Malawian soil; to withdraw them if they are already onthe market and in circulation; to ensure that Malawi accepts only the best environmental standardsthrough imports; and, at the same time, to build on the best indigenous technologies thatsatisfactorily work for the poor and the environment
Role of leadership
Political icons and leaders in Malawi have also made it a priority during their tenure of office to develop the country into a green economy. The late State President Ngwazi Professor Bingu Wa Mutharika
Was passionate and worked towards eradicating the poverty that entangled the citizens of the country. Several investments towards turning Malawi from being largely an importer and consumer, into being a rather much more substantial producer and exporter. His major vision was poverty elimination, thus encouraged tapping into the vast environmental resources to promote development and improved standards of living for the largely agrarian economy, hence promoting a green economy. President Wa Mutharika took cognisance of the vital role of climate change control, natural resource management and environmental sustainability on the creation of wealth and employment for the Malawians. Fisher (2004). There is however need to observe that, an intense commitment to work towards improved standards of living, and reducing poverty unconsciously expose and make the environment vulnerable if not much care is exercised in striking a balance, between the gross national product, community production, and per capita income where different forms of wealth are required.Ability to maintain an even balance between environmental assets and other forms of wealth (financial, physical, social, among many others) proves to be critical. Fisher (2004), postulates that, theeconomy has been growing steadily for the last six years. The highest growth rate of 9.7per cent per annum attained in 2008 made the country the second fastest growing economyin the world (Ministry of Development Planning and Cooperation, undated). However Bass (2011), submits that there areacknowledgements, notably by the State President and cabinet ministers amongst many, of thedownside of the unbalanced and irresponsible use of the resources at Malawi’s disposal.Malawi has embarked on quite a number of development projects which however require proper handling for the objective to be realised lest the project be done and implemented in vain. On the other hand the government of Malawi has to be credited for implementing such development programmes and effectively applying appropriate policy mechanisms. According to Fisher (2004)These policies have led to the government’s outstanding self-sufficiency in food (Office of thePresident and Cabinet, 2010) overwhelmingly owes its success to the utility of the environment.
LEGISLATION IN MALAWI
In their quest to combat effectively on the relationship between environment and development, the responsible authorities in Malawi have largely used the environment outlook report process as a major mainstreaming instrument. To address the seemingly important factors several and major instrument actors within the frame work have been included and these are, the National Environment Action Plan (NEAP, 1994), provisions of the Environmental Management Act (EMA,1996), including environment authorities, Malawian experts, supported by aid and donor funding. The government of Malawi has been relatively able in combating the relationship between environment and development as the two are almost inseparable but require effective, proper planning and management. Development can be a result of the manipulation of the surrounding environment as the locals tap into the wealth of their surroundings for economically rewarding investment within the same area while improper management of the similar process may result in environmental degradation for no reward economically but rather further deteriorate the environment conditions thus endangering the future climatic conditions. The ability by the government of Malawi in managing the relationship between environment and development has made it inevitable for gathering data and making a clear case for environmental investment for poverty reduction, hence enjoying improved standards of living for the people which inevitably become development. However important to note is the element of time as this development evolves over some time of much input and investment thus requires much dedication and principles as such development begin showing trends and effects of investment over time. One very important benefit of this process which Malawians have grasped accordingly is that , there is clarity on how environment affects people, and engagement of many groups in the environment outlook process, links the same to closely to social and economic users. Development thus is achieved and do not just come by on a silver platter. According to Yassin (2004), the time has come for improved investment in the environment , which in turn requires investment in good environmental information, ground trothing that information locally, and making it available to those whose awareness and decisions need to be strengthened. Yassin (2004), states that Malawi is endowed with a vast natural resource base, including some of the most fertile soils in Southern Africa for agricultural purposes, closed forest resources, abundant water resources and a remarkably diverse flora and fauna of which rich fish resources stand out. The author submits that if these resources are properly tapped and utilised, these resources can provide the basis for the sustainable socio economic development of the country.
In general one is therefore tempted to argue that, despite the large natural resources Africa is endowed with, the same do not account for the current state of affairs in most African countries. Thus were could Africa at large be going wrong, Malawi as noted from the above, is endowed with a variety of natural resources but continues to be entangled in the quagmire of poverty and underdevelopment. This therefore leaves one to conclude that despite the various natural resources existing in Malawi, the level of development does not account for the large deposits of natural resources thus despite the attempt by the government of Malawi to effectively tap resources and translate the same into meaningful development is far from achieved. Malawians continue plummeting in poverty and in some instances have been rescued by foreign aid from several donor states. The environment is exposed to increasing pressure, exacerbated by the high population growth and low level of environmental awareness, and that pressure contributes considerably to the vicious cycle of poverty. This poses crucial hindrances to both economic growth and environmental management. Thus according to Yassin 2004, the ability to keep the environment and natural resources under continuous review is a very critical aspect for informed decision making.
Environment and finance
According to Boyd Hamella 2006, it is time to account for the significant economic contribution of the environment to our daily lives. If we did so we would get a true picture of the value of our economy, which would encourage us to delink economic growth from environmental degradation. While Michael Mmangisa 2004, states that, policy makers need evidence that investment in sustainable environmental and natural resources management is effective in achieving the policy priorities of economic growth, food security and poverty reduction. Whilst most African countries have improved their understanding of the importance of the environment in recent years, spurred by international agreements concerning global public goods, this has not often been reflected in key economic decisions and institutional frameworks that shape national development, Fisher (2004).
Within the 28 districts throughout Malawi, the government established local government authorities named councils. The government conferred power on the local government authorities to lookafter the welfare of the people falling within their scope of operations and administrative jurisdiction and this includes, provision of clean water, refuse and garbage collection and promotion of infrastructure and economic development through the formulation and execution of local development plans among many others. The council is further responsible for environmental services, environmental reclamation and environmental education. Section 6 of the local government act 1998 provides a legal basis for such functions and responsibilities. According to Fisher 2004, the local government authorities in some districts have managed to combat environmental degradation problems by introducing projects to the local people.
TheBalaka case –beekeeping as an incentive for villagers to conserve the environment: source Mark Fisher (2004) * According to Fisher2004, environmental problems in Balaka include deforestation, due to the dependence on charcoal production for household livelihoods, bush fires, due to dependence on mice for household livelihoods, land degradation, due to bush fires and deforestation, and ensuing soil erosion and the consequent siltation of rivers. Balaka district council realised that it would be difficult to solve these environmental problems with a sectorial approach and sought an integrated planning approach that focused on the household as the key actor. The council however sensitised local people to alternative sources of livelihood that would enhance and foster natural resource management. The council introduces the following economic activities: * Beekeeping to reduce economic pressures for deforestation. * Mushroom growing within the beekeeping area to reduce economic dependence on beekeeping alone and also to utilise resources that would not be used by beekeeping. * Fruit growing within the beekeeping area to increase the number of trees that flower at different times of the year, as well as to reduce over reliance on beekeeping for livelihood. * Fisheries production also to reduce dependence on charcoal for livelihood and to make wider use of districts environmental assets. * Alternative stoves, that are solar powered and energy saving stoves (Chitetezo Mbaula), to reduce use of charcoal.
The council affected a number of projects to encourage positive transformation in most communities at grass root level, most of which were structured around beekeeping. Fisher states that, the communities were informed that bees require good husbandry techniques as they need water and trees that flower at different times and seasons of the year, thus they should avoid soil erosion and siltation of water bodies. This however managed to effect change and transformation of normative behaviours that had since evolved over time. Where communities traditionally set veld fires in order to clear land for the purposes of catching mice, they were advised that bees do not like smoke, and bushfires would drive the bees away. Communities were further advised that bees would collect nectar from a radius of 10 kilometres and therefore need a habitat of that size if they are to be productive, thus nailing in the message that economically viable beekeeping is inconsistent with deforestation.
Conclusion
It can therefore be concluded from the above that, Malawi is more dependent on environmental assets with over 85% of Malawians involved in agricultural production; however the country also is very vulnerable to natural evnvironmental risks which include flooding, drought and partially climate change. Of concern however is the management of environment against development. If the stocks and flows of environmental resources are property managed and harnessed, Malawi could develop a green economy, wealth generation and social justice, all within the ecological limits. To effectively combat this gap there is therefore need to bridge this arising gap through environmental mainstreaming , the need to effectively integrate the environment into development policies, plans, and budgets as well as every day management is of utmost importance. Leadership in Malawi should be credited for coming up with such policy and statutory instruments governing the nature and use of land and natural resources towards the development of the nation at large. Decentralisations of local governance bodies through local authority councils has made possible conservation of natural resources at grass root level possible as well as implement income generating projects from the same environment; however there is need to broaden the scope of such projects if meaningful development is to be achieved. Malawi has however to a lesser extent managed to manage the relationship between environment and development.
MALI
INTRODUCTION
Formerly made up the Sudanese republic and only to be renamed to Mali in 1960 after obtaining independence from France. Mali enjoys a subtropical to arid climate. Mali faces several environmental issues which include deforestation, soil erosion, desertification, inadequate supplies of potable water and poaching among many others. Mali has a total population of about 15, 494, 466 and is rated among the 25 poorest countries in the world. Largely dependent on gold mining and agricultural exports for revenue. Mali is an agricultural economy and therefore exerts too much pressure on the environment. Mali is considered a very poor state as it is ranked among the 25 poorest nations on the globe thus, the continued toiling, suffering experienced by the locals make it inevitable for the country to continue sinking in the poverty trap. Mismanagement of the available natural resources also further exacerbates the poverty rate accompanied by violent conflictresurgence in Mali. On the other hand in Mali there is need for development policy to be enshrined in the environmental use and capacity building both at grass root level and macro levels. Sustainable development includes a number of interdependent variables, including environmental, social, economic, and natural resources. Environmental protection constitutes a very important aspect of sustainable development, the environment if properly exploited forms a gateway to economic prosperity and development.
Natural environment, Natural resources- Mali
According to Traore (1998), Mali`s multi-cultural society is based on the Niger river which flows for 1700kilometres through Mali, the natural trade route between the forest producers of cola nuts and gold in the south, and the desert producers, while a century of declining rainfall has increased pressure on scarce natural resources coupled with very high temperatures has even worsened the pressure exerted on the environment in an attempt to make ends meet. Northern Mali faces severe economic and ecological challenges. The exploitation of arid and semi-arid lands affects the whole of human kind. Excessive monoculture has impacted negatively the soil texture and fertility. The continued search for economic gain has resulted in the degrading of agricultural and forest resources in Mali, creating more marginal lands, eroding Mali`s economic and ecological capital. Traore 2008, submits that the government on Mali needs to husband its natural resources while exploiting them productively if any meaningful development is to be realised. He further postulates that ,it is environmentally sound to exploit but not to over exploit the available resources.
The link between environmental degradation and poverty in Mali becomes central, poverty is a pressing issue and the need to feed the population after drought has taken toll over long-term environmental concerns such as climate change or the loss of biodiversity. Key natural areas of concern in Mali therefore become desertification, water scarcity, soil and water conservation issues. Food security has become a pre occupation to the poor, thus the biological need to fend for one`s family and oneself, has resulted to an over intensive use of the limited natural resources available to them. The people of Mali have thus been forced to make trade-offs between immediate foods needs and longer term environmentalsustainability, both in production and consumption, Joseph Mullen (2002). The people’s vulnerable economic position however therefore drives them into abuse of natural resources available and at their disposal.
Natural resources conservation and development
Findings from the World Summit for social Development (United Nations, 1995) denote that, a close linkage between protecting traditional land rights, strengthening land management in the areas of pastoral and nomadic activity, building on traditional communal practices, and protecting communities from encroachment. Mullen 2002, submits that this rational approach to conservation is related to protecting human livelihoods and reducing poverty through developing improved systems of range management, consolidating access to clean water, and production factors such as education and technical advice. With particular emphasis on traditional forms of sustainable agriculture and animal husbandry.
Whilst the government of Mali has made several strides in their attempt to effectively manage the relationship between environment and development not much result has been yielded as yet largely because of the vulnerability of the population to poverty. The government has not done much to gain confidence of the population in the ability of the government to turn around their fortunes into a more productive and functional economy. The continued over exploitation of land and other natural resources including bio-diversity has made it intolerable for the effective management of development and environment. Whilst over exploitation of natural resources from the surrounding environment has effectively resulted in degradation and dilapidation of the environment further plummeting the people into serious poverty.
Policy initiatives
Considerable effort has been made by farmers union, civil action groups and many other related groups to have access to land and land ownership rights however these have been met with a deaf ear by the government. Mullen 2002, submits that land tenure is of utmost importance in managing the relationship between environment and development. Moreover he is of the view that, land rights legislation be included in the enabling framework to ensure that natural resources are adequately protected from speculation and capital development. There is need for the government along with the leadership of Mali to draft policy and instrument on land ownership if sensical development is to be realised, the legislative framework should however include ,land ownership rights, land zoning for agricultural purposes, cadastral surveys, commercial, forest rangeland and settlement uses. Currently the Malian legislation only covers two registration aspects of access to land ownership which include the registration of untitled land in the name of the state, and the transfer and recording of titles in the name of the person who they have been assigned or allocated. The fact that there is no land ownership for farmers however makes the rampant misuse of the environment unavoidable as the land and environment is handled without much due care but rather negligently.
Gender and environment
The government of Mali has covered much ground however from the gendered for of development and environmental conservation. Women have been empowered to a greater extent as they occupy the front line relationship with land, water resources, fuel wood and small livestock. This gendered development has however gone a milestone in success of arresting environmental degradation. Involvement of women in policy, making that affect the environment, and the development of more energy efficient cooking systems were developed. Women are the custodians of the forest and water bodies as culturally it has been that women gather firewood and fetch water from the surrounding environment. The government of Mali noticed this and took advantage of it by targeting women in an attempt to conserve the environment, and is enjoying relative success, however such developments could be undermined by rising levels of poverty in the country as citizens would opt to complement their incomes by engaging in environmentally damaging activities and bio-diversitydepleting coping strategies such as using fishing nets that capture tinny fish, commonly known as kapenta.
Civil society and Non-governmental organisations
Isolated initiatives have proven to fail the government of Mali in their quest to manage the relationship between environment and development. The government has managed the relationship between environment and development to a greater extent by engaging the civil society groups and Non-governmental organisations the government of Mali engaged people with technical know-how on the development fraternity after realising that isolated initiatives have little impact in a sustainable environmental conservation. A broad coalition of the civil society groups, local government, business organisations and NGOs, particularly those dedicated to conservation have proven effective in lobbying government and creating public awareness of conservation and natural resource management issues among the community of citizens in Mali.
Sustainable livelihoods
Largely an indicator of development and proven management of natural resources are relatively observed in sustainable livelihoods. In Mali the rural folks have a number of basic elements in sustainable livelihoods. Agricultural intensification has been the common source of livelihood in Mali, however following the government’s plan and initiative to focus on conservation of natural resources and promote development simultaneously. According to (Scoones, 1998). The sustainable livelihood strategy could include poverty reduction, improvedwell-being, and ensured sustainability of natural resource base and enhanced livelihood resilience. Analysing social, natural, and socio-economic capital is to analyse the renewable natural resource base of crop production, fisheries and forestry in function of stakeholders, poverty reduction, social capital and gender (ODA, 1996), Mullen 2002, argues that this will lead to responsible activities appropriate to natural resources conservation and sustainable livelihoods in Mali, hence the end result being development. The government of Mali has managed to establish an operational framework for a productive partnership between resource conservation and sustainable rural livelihoods, incorporating a range of cropping systems, livestock, agro forestry, and fisheries system that maintain let alone increase productivity of the natural resource base, including land, water, plants and animals. The Malian government has managed to introduce systems that promote sustainable methods of agriculture as well as methods that maintain soil fertility and texture even improving the same in some instances, despite the high levels of poverty Mali has progressively managed to effectively deal with the relationship between environment and development, though the alarming poverty levels threaten to disintegrate the achieved development growth economically and the environmental sound policies that promote and dictate appropriate usage of arable land and the surrounding environment.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, it can therefore be clearly noted from the above outline that, though Mali being a relatively poor state ranked among the 25 least poorcountries, it has however managed to establish and maintain a reasonably improving management system of the environment and development. By virtue of being a largely agricultural economy, effects of land and environmental degradation undermining development have been relatively addressed by incorporating women, civil society, nongovernmental organisations and different farming methods and cropping methods in a bid to curb the misuse of the environment and the continued mismanagement of natural resources towards a better and developed nation. Drafts of policy and statutory instruments on land ownership rights and tenure system have been noted with much applause from development practitioners. However the continued entanglement of the masses in Mali in poverty trap seems to be the major threat towards achieving an efficient management policy on environment and development.
References:
Scoones, I. (1998). Sustainable rural livelihoods: A framework for Analysis. IDS working paper Number 72. Sussex Institute for Development studies.
Oda, (1996). Policy Information Market Systems (PIMS). Mimeo. London: Oda
Kwasi, A. Fosu. And Naude. W, (2009). Policy Brief Number 3, (2009). United Nations University
Joseph Mullen.(2000). Policy Reform and Natural Resource Management. University of Manchester
Humphrey, S. (2012). Africa ecological footprint report. Green infrastructure for Africa’s ecological security. Brat Striton. UK http//:www.cia.gov/library/puplic_worldfactbook (accessed 17/01/13)
WorldBank report 2009 http//:unidir.org/pdf/articles/pdf-art1799.pdf_Mali`s History and Natural Environment: A Peace of Timbuktu (accessed 16/01/13) http//:www.guardian.co.uk/global-development-foodsecurity (accessed 17/01/13) http//:www.info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/36496/povertyEnvironment.pdf (accessed 16/01/13)
Bass,S. et al. (2011).Mainstreaming the environment in Malawi`s development: experience and the next steps. Institute for Environment and Development (UK)
Rapley, J. (2007). Understanding Development: Theory and Practice in the Third World 3rdedition. Lynne Rienner (USA).
References: Scoones, I. (1998). Sustainable rural livelihoods: A framework for Analysis. IDS working paper Number 72. Sussex Institute for Development studies. Oda, (1996). Policy Information Market Systems (PIMS). Mimeo. London: Oda Kwasi, A Joseph Mullen.(2000). Policy Reform and Natural Resource Management. University of Manchester Humphrey, S Rapley, J. (2007). Understanding Development: Theory and Practice in the Third World 3rdedition. Lynne Rienner (USA).
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Malawi is one of the world’s poorest countries, ranking 160th out of 182 countries on the Human Development Index. Progress towards reaching the Millennium Development Goal of eradicating extreme poverty has been limited. According to the United Nations Development Programme’s Human Development Report for 2009, about 74 per cent of the population still lives below the income poverty line of US$1.25 a day and 90 per cent below the US$2 a day threshold. The proportion of poor and ultra-poor is highest in rural areas of the southern and northern parts of the country.…
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Environment: can be defined as sum total of an external conditions which influence on organism.…
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Handelman, H. (2010). The Challenge of Third World Development. (pp 1-240). Boston, MA: Pearson Learning Solutions.…
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The environment ca also be defined as the biotic and a biotic surrounding of an organism, or population, and includes particularly the factors that have an influence in their survival, development and evolution…
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Environment means all that surrounds us. It is a very complex and comprehensive phenomenon. It consists of the climate, geography, geology and all the natural resources that nature has bestowed upon us. Life is there because of our peculiar biosphere and ecosystem. There is life on this planet because of a certain balance between these various elements. Without this balance, our planet would have been just another sterile and lifeless planet revolving round the sun.…
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The environment is everything that lives on Earth plus the air, sun, water, weather, and the Earth itself.…
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Poverty reduction and environmental conservation represent two of the main global challenges. The two targets constitute part of the eight Global Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Arising from the thinking that Environmental degradation and poverty reinforce each other since the poor are both agents and victims of environmental destruction; the poverty-environment hypothesis has become a major concern of international development agencies and policy makers. It is often argued that the poor are often the biggest victims of environmental destruction since they depend heavily on the resources provided by natural environment and therefore are less able to escape the effects of environmental damage. According to the UNDP report of 1998, environmental damage almost always hits those living in poverty the hardest. The implication is that there are indeed strong links between the environment and poverty. The important question however is not whether the two should be linked, but rather how to link them. Based on theoretical underpinnings and empirical evidence, this paper attempts to explore how poverty and environment are linked within the context of poor developing countries. The thinking is that the heavy reliance on the environment by the poor for their livelihoods creates complex, dynamic interactions and relationships between environmental conditions, people’s access to and control over environmental resources, and poverty. Understanding the nature of these relationships is a crucial for policy formulation and the practice and execution of poverty reduction and environmental management strategies (Kimalu, et. al. 2001). Within the Kenyan context, the government recognizes that “the full integration of environmental concerns in development planning at all levels of decision making remains a…
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Muriithi, Samuel M. African Development Dilemma: The Big Debate. Lanham: Univ. Press of America, 1997. Print.…
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18. Blake, J., (1999), Overcoming the ‘Value-Action Gap’ in Environmental Policy: tensions between national policy and local experience, Local Environment, vol.4 (3), pp 257 - 278.…
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When Botswana gained political independence in 1966 from the British colony, the country seemed an unlikely contender to become a successful developmental state. It was one of the poorest countries in Africa, its vast territory consisted largely of semi‐arid desert land, its small…
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Environment according to Oxford Advanced dictionary is the natural conditions like land, air and water, in which people, animals and plants live and also circumstances affecting their life. Environment can be physical or psychological. Physical environment deals with material aspects such as infrastructure, availability of resource facilities. The psychological environment includes the home, school community and significantly other people in our lives such as parents, peers and siblings. The quality of our home is very significant; some have a history or tradition of formal education and modern influences, while some are not so well equipped. The gadgets, resources and facilities in both types of home will influence the learning processes of children born in these homes.…
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Developmental issues have become increasingly important as it encompasses the very existence of man. It is within development cycles that human nature revolves to meet the challenges found in it as a cause of nature and man. Issues relating to the Environment are of utmost importance to me as I find myself in the part of the world that is lagging behind on issues relating to Environmental Management. Ghana is challenged with problems of concrete and concise Environmental policies and strategies and the very few that exist are faced with problems of effective implementation. These challenges have deep effects on the socio-economic development of my country-Ghana…
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The environment and the global economy are intrinsically linked. The environment provides natural resources that promote economic growth which in turn has caused the destruction of vital eco systems (Miller, 2010 pp 6). If we continue to live as we are, consuming, polluting and clearing precious land at an ever accelerating rate (Ede, 2008 pp 20), we are in fact destroying our very own vital life support system (Miller, 2010 pp 5). The need for change towards sustainable development means to live off the earth’s natural resources without depleting them (Miller, 2010 pp 6).…
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