Empowerment of Women
Women continue to aspire for leadership positions in all spheres of governance in both the public and private sector. However it has not been easy. The paper will examine the many challenges women still face in taking leadership positions with specific reference to African women. Included in the paper are the barriers related to culture and cultural expectations, the choice and/or balance between work and family, and women’s own fear of success.
Women continue to aspire to leadership positions in all spheres of governance both in the public and private sectors. Great strides have been made in the political realm, and women’s participation in both the freedom struggles and democratic processes of many African countries have been notable. However, this participation has not always translated into equal representation in political leadership positions. Once elections are conducted, and positions are assigned, one realizes that women are no longer visible. Some countries like South Africa have made much progress within a short space of time in their efforts toward a gender-neutral society, but for others the pace has been much slower. It should also be noted that attaining positions of power and leadership is one thing, but could it be that women pay a higher price than men? Gwendolyn Mikell (1997) captured the dilemma for women in her statement that “Contemporary African women sometimes think of themselves as walking a political/gender tightrope” (p.1), in that African women are concerned about the large number of economic and political problems facing their communities, but at the same time they are “grappling with how to affirm their own identities while transforming societal notions of gender and familial roles” (Mikell, 1997, p.1). The paper examines the many challenges women still face in taking leadership positions, including the barriers related to culture and cultural expectations; the choice and/or balance between work and family; and the stress that
Women continue to aspire to leadership positions in all spheres of governance both in the public and private sectors. Great strides have been made in the political realm, and women’s participation in both the freedom struggles and democratic processes of many African countries have been notable. However, this participation has not always translated into equal representation in political leadership positions. Once elections are conducted, and positions are assigned, one realizes that women are no longer visible. Some countries like South Africa have made much progress within a short space of time in their efforts toward a gender-neutral society, but for others the pace has been much slower. It should also be noted that attaining positions of power and leadership is one thing, but could it be that women pay a higher price than men? Gwendolyn Mikell (1997) captured the dilemma for women in her statement that “Contemporary African women sometimes think of themselves as walking a political/gender tightrope” (p.1), in that African women are concerned about the large number of economic and political problems facing their communities, but at the same time they are “grappling with how to affirm their own identities while transforming societal notions of gender and familial roles” (Mikell, 1997, p.1). The paper examines the many challenges women still face in taking leadership positions, including the barriers related to culture and cultural expectations; the choice and/or balance between work and family; and the stress that
References: Aledejana, F. & Aledejana, T.I. (2005). “Leadership in education: The place of Nigerian women.” International studies in administration, 33(2), 69-75. BBC News. (2005). Africa’s women speak out. BBC Interview. Retrieved 12/14/2007 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/Africa/4370007.stm. Dei, C. (2006). Gender equity development in higher education in South Africa. South Africa, UNCFSP-TELP (Uunited Negro College Fund Special Programs – Tertiary Education Linkages Project). Emmet, M. (2001). “Women at the heart of a renewed vision for humanity.” Agenda, No. 49, 66- 70. Gardiner, M., & Tiggermann, M. (1999). “Gender differences in leadership style, job stress and healthin male- and female-dominated industries.” Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 72(3), 301-315. Grant, C Growe, R., & Montgomery, P.(2000). “Women and the leadership paradigm: bridging the gender gap.” National Forum, The Phi Kappa Phi Journal, 17E, 1-10. Gumbi, R.V. (2006). “Women in higher education leadership in The 21st century: address at the launch of WHEEL,” September 2005, Protea Hotel President, Capetown. In UNCFSP-TEL). ——— ———. (2002). “Tracing differentiation in gendered leadership: an analysis of differences in gender composition in top management in business, politics and the civil service.” Gender, work and organisation. 9(1), 15-38. Kunin, M. (2008, May 3). “Women leaders.” The Globalist. Retrieved May 10, 2008 from http://www.theglobalist.com/StoryId.aspx+6981. Liping, L. (2000). “Study of the level and orientation of women college students’ motive to achieve.” Chinese Education & Society, 33(3), 58-67. Mikell, G. (Ed). (1997). “Introduction.” African feminism: The politics of survival in sub-saharan Africa. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 1-36 Google Book Retrieved from http://books.google.co.za Moola, S Nair, N. (2004). “On ‘being’ and ‘becoming’…the many faces of an activist.” Agenda, No. 60, 28-32. Nation Media Group, Nairobi, Kenya. “Women to get 50 percent share of public positions. Daily nation reporter.” Daily Nation. Friday July 6, 2007. Norris, P Paye-Layleh, J.(2005). “Liberia: A woman for President?” Africa News, News24.com, September 2005. Retrieved 5/2/2008 from http://www.news24.com/News24/Africa/News/0,,2-11-1447_1771203,00.html Polly, T. (1988). “Is Margaret Thatcher a woman? No woman is if she has to make it in a man’s world.” Washington Monthly. Retrieved May 10, 2008 from http:www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-6676349.html. Qin, W. (2000). “On the particularity of women college students’ development.” Chinese Education & Society, 33(3), 33-37. Sadie,Y.(2005). “Women in political decision-making in the sadc region.” Agenda, No. 65, 17-31. Santovec, M.L. (2006). “Activist provides guidelines to negotiating a life.” Women in Higher Education, 15(14), 1-2. Shayo, R Tedrow, B. (1999). “A qualitative study of women’s experiences in community college leadership positions.” Community College Review, 27(3), 19. The Globalist (2006, July 5). “Leadership in post-conflict africa: the case of liberia.” Retrieved May 2, 2008 from http://www.theglobalist.com/DBWeb/StoryId.aspx?StoryId=5370. Tripp, A.M. (2001). “Women and democracy: the new political activism in africa.” Journal of Democracy, 12(3), 141-155. Tripp, A.M. (2003). “Women in movement: transformations in african political landscapes.” International Feminist Journal of Politics, 5(2), 233-2 Chapter 1 See Musandu, Drawing from the Wells of Culture: Grace Onyango and the Kenyan Political Scene (1964-1983). Department of History, University of California Los Angeles