Cognitive Development

Warren Mayer
The role of learning in personality development

Personality theorists have long argued over the nature of personality in terms of how it is developed and how we come to understand the factors that influence said development. Numerous researchers and scientists have proposed theories and hypotheses in order to attempt to explain and elaborate on the role of learning in particular regarding the development of an individuals personality, however it must be noted prior to the continuation of this paper, that no one theory holds. All theories have salient points, as well as criticisms, and this must be taken into account when dealing with this topic. Firstly, learning can be defined as “any relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience” (Weiten, 2010). Personality can be defined as a largely consistent and stable set of personal traits and characteristics that determine who we are seen to be, as well as being used to predict potential behavior. This essay shall discuss how learning affects personality development whilst paying particular attention to the role of cognition and, in particular, Albert Bandura 's Social Cognitive Theory. Bandura 's Social Cognitive Theory stipulates that learning is a cognitive aspect, and as such it involves a variety of mental processes such as memory and perception, as well as controlling processes that influence decision making and problem solving. It centres around the principle of “reciprocal determinism” which notes the interrelationships that exist between “an active person, the person 's behavior, and the environment” (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010). This essay shall include examples of how one learns through observation and how this can be integrated into social environments. A social environment can be seen as a location where one engages in social activity involving one or more persons excluding the original subject. It is arguably in these social environments that the majority of learning occurs based on the process of “observational learning” (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010) which can be defined as “learning that results from the observing the behavior of other people (called models)”. Attention will also be paid to how personality development is influenced by the amount and duration of what we actually remember after learning something. Memory forms a key part of cognitive processing and therefore its role in learning and personality development is relatively crucial. By the end of this essay, the reader should be able to better understand the links that can be drawn between learning and personality development, whilst simultaneously being able to better comprehend the nature of both in reference to any social environment.

The first topic this essay will touch base on, is the nature of learning and how we actually learn, as well as utilizing particular social contexts in describing it and to link it to observational learning and memory. In order to effectively learn something, one must first receive an input in the form of a stimulus; such as listening to somebody speak or watching an action being performed. The stimulus is detected by the sensory organs, which translate and transfer these messages to the brain. These signals are then interpreted and categorized in the brain and this process refers to perception. It is through perception that we determine which actions to take based on how exactly we receive and interpret the information. Thus to learn, we firstly note a stimulus(such as listening to a teacher speak in a classroom), then it is interpreted in the brain, and then classified into memory based on a principle of encoding. Encoding occurs on 3 processing levels; structural(shallow), phonemic(intermediate), and semantic(deep) (Weiten, 2010). The way that information is encoded correlates to 3 different memory stores; sensory, short-term, and long-term (Weiten, 2010). It is in the storage of information in each of these 3 departments that we are able to effectively utilize what we learn. Sensory storage refers to brief mental recollections of visual or auditory stimuli and lasts only for a quarter of a second. It is argued that the role that sensory storage plays in learning is minor. The same argument applies to the short-term memory, which is a limited-capacity storage that that retains unrehearsed information within a time frame of approximately 20 seconds (Weiten, 2010) with many saying that due to it 's brief nature it does not apply to learning. However, there is a counterargument that states that it is through the usage of the short-term memory as a working memory, that information is able to be committed to the long-term memory store. The long-term memory store refers to information/memories that are retained for ever, although it must be noted that some information can be forgotten and is not easily retrieved thereby affecting learning. It is in long-term memory that the experiences that shape us as people are stored, and thus long-term memory has a prominent role in the determination of personality. Baddeley in 1986 proposed the new model for short-term memory to be utilized as working memory, and when taking this into account in terms of learning, we must note here the link to using working memory as a buffer for long-term memory (Weiten, 2010). By acquiring more long-term memories by way of gaining experience and observational learning (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010), we are able to gain or remove the intrinsic traits that make up personality. Personality is thus linked to the development of the long-term memory through observational processes. However, in order to commit information to the long-term memory, it must firstly be perceived and encoded so that it becomes committed to (retained) in memory, and it is within this front that problems can occur relating to how effective learning is in relation to personality development. When discussing learning, perception is crucial as if we inadequately perceive something, or do not perceive it at all then it affects learning, and what is committed to memory is potentially not similar to the stimulus input. Therefore to effectively learn something, we must be paying attention to the particular stimulus that we wish to draw the information from. Attention is key to developing memories, as if you do not fully comprehend the stimulus, it can not adequately be committed to memory. For example, in a school setting, a student would be under constant influence of the environment according to Bandura 's observational learning theory. By observing the behavior of other classmates, the students own behavior is potentially vulnerable to alteration based on the extent to which they are influenced by their peers. The memorization and application of schemas also forms an important part of observation theory. A schema is an “organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event” (Weiten, 2010, pg 288). When relating this principle to how it can potentially effect personality, we must first understand schemas act as a guideline for social behavior. Noting this, schemas differ depending on personality, for example if one is expected to attend a dinner party; a person with a tendency to act quietly will have a different set of schemas based on observation than a person who is extroverted by nature. This difference in behavior is important to note when looking into how personality is developed.

Defining and measuring personality is the next step in understanding the complexities surrounding the development of personality through learning. What makes a person develop particular traits at certain times? Nobody is entirely consistent in behavior but the relative consistency forms a large part of personality, and determining perception is largely subjective in nature (Weiten, 2010). Personality is also distinctive in the sense that it explains why people do not act alike when placed in the same situation. People describe each other based on their association with certain traits I.e.; lazy, optimistic, etc.. The organization of these traits have led to the formation of a number of theories regarding the measurement of personality, and as an echo from the introduction, no one theory holds particular sway. In this context where we are looking specifically at cognitive processing in personality development, Bandura 's social cognitive theory notes that people are self-organizing, self-reflecting, proactive, and self-regulating. They alter themselves constantly due to external events (Weiten, 2010). Bandura argues that that reciprocal determinism is a highly important factor in the developing of behavioural patterns. Reciprocal determinism refers to the effect that the environment has in determining behavior in conjunction with internal mental cognition and overt behavior. People engineer sets of forward planning initiatives in order to achieve desirable outcomes and avoid detrimental ones and this forms an important base relating to how cognitive theorists, such as Bandura, look at the identification of personality (Weiten, 2010). This leads to the next point of focus that shall be discussed in this essay; the influence that observational learning and socialization has on behavioural development and thus personality. As was stipulated previously observational learning results from watching and then mimicking the actions of those people around us, known as models (Weiten, 2010). Personality development begins during infancy and then progresses throughout one 's life. Throughout this time, we are constantly under the the influence of the society around us. Socialization refers to “the acquisition of the norms and behaviors expected of people in a particular society” (Weiten, 2010, pg 482). The most typical example of socialization lies in the divide of gender that is drawn across from birth as this is a crucial aspect of behavior and how one is expected to behave. When one is born either male or female, immediately there are going to different expectations of them and what they are required to do in a societal context. There are 3 main sources of socialization regarding this example of gender-roles in terms of observational learning and the development of behavior as a result; families, schools and the media (Weiten, 2010). In families, children tend to adopt the behavioural gender-role traits of the same-sex parent. Children are gender-concious due to self and family socialization, so a girl will likely play with dolls, toy stoves, etc. whilst a boy will tend to play with tools and toy cars, etc. because after watching their same-sex parent, they have perceived that to be appropriate behavior for their gender (Weiten, 2010). In schools, children are exposed to a variety of new stimuli and models that affect socialization and personality development. Teachers opinions and thoughts filter down to the children they teach and this can alter the way in which the children understand the workings of the social environment. Ideas that are delivered in textbooks are also prominent influences in personality, particularly if the child enjoys a particular subject. He or she may be more inclined to follow and adopt principles from that subject 's material than other subjects, and thereby contribute to the construction of a more distinct personality. Also the ideas expressed by the books can further contribute to establishing gender-conciousness and the definition of roles, for example, in traditional literature male characters are generally portrayed as being more heroic and and clever, whilst women are more likely to be portrayed performing domestic chores (Weiten, 2010). Arguably the most potent aspect of school interactions are those between peers, they are in class together, play together, and talk to one another on a constant basis. Through these interactions it is possible to group certain children based on characteristics they share. If one child acts with disdain to a certain food for example, then tells his friend it tastes bad, you will be wary of consuming that same food. The final aspect of the example of gender-conciousness in socialization that I shall use it the effect of the media in developing personality. Television shows have generally presented men and women placed into traditional roles (Weiten, 2010) although this is not as prominent in recent years. Advertisements however are arguably still utilizing this concept of gender-conciousness to influence the sale of products, claiming that they will allow one to fit in better within their gender roles. Women for example are normally see worrying about trivial things in comparison to men, such as the whiteness of laundry or the shine of their dishes (Weiten, 2010). The influence of the media also ranges out from portraying the gender stereotypes, as it also serves as a platform for other people, such as political figures, to express viewpoints. By observing and perceiving these messages that are put across, people 's views can be altered and potentially their personality. Studies have also shown a correlation between the amount of violence watched on television and the levels of aggressiveness in children (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010). Through this example of gender socialization we have been able to discern the effects of observational learning techniques in determining behavior. It is for the above mentioned reasons (observation of models as a child) that personality develops accordingly in later years.

On the whole, personality development is a largely abstract concept as there is no one set way of defining how we develop and measure our personalities Although many theories exist in order to try and explain the tendencies of behavior and what motivates us to act in certain way, no single theory serves to fully explain this issue. Instead, the combination of the various theories serve to help us gain a better understanding of how we react to particular situations, as each of the theories that have been proposed have had salient points, as well as valid criticisms. In this essay, social cognitive theory was explored to a great extent in order to identify the nature of behavioural patterns that exist as a result of observational learning. The theory argues that people are continuously self-improving and change themselves based of the experiences that they go through during life, and that this is achieved through processes of observation in particular. By observing the behavior of others (models), we actively learn the type of behaviors that are appropriate and those types of behavior that are not. This can potentially affect the way that we in turn act around others to the extent that it results in a personality change. We also go through the process of socialization by noting the principle of observational learning; we learn to behave in a certain way based on how we watch the other people in our particular society act. We must also note the role that memory in particular as well as other associated cognitive functions have in the learning process and therefore personality development. By inadequately perceiving something, then the behavioural outcome from the observational process could be the incorrect one, based within context. We can inadequately perceive something, either as a result of inattention, or or incorrect encoding (i.e. encoding something on the phonemic level as opposed to the semantic level) and this is arguably what leads to discrepancy in personality. One consistent aspect that the holds throughout the social cognitive theory is the principle that the environment has on personality development, known as reciprocal determinism, and as was explained in the essay, this relates to the relationship maintained between the environment, mental cognition, and overt behavior. Overall, this essay has aimed to elaborate on the nature of cognition and the effect that cognitive processes play in the development of personality.

References:
Weiten, W. (2010). Psychology: Themes and Variations, Eighth Edition. Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.

Shaffer, D.R., & Kipp, K. (2010). Developmental Psychology: Childhood and Adolescence Eighth Edition. Wadsworth. Cengage Learning.

Shettleworth, S.J. (2010). Cognition, Evolution, and Behavior Second Edition. New York. Oxford University Press.

McGilly, K. (editor). (1998). Classroom Lessons: Integrating Cognitive Theory and Classroom Practise. Massachusetts. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Eysneck, M.W. (2001). Principles of Cognitive Psychology Second Edition. Philadelphia. Psychology Press Ltd.

Valsiner, J. & Voss, H. (editors). (1996). The Structure of Learning Processes. New Jersey. Ablex Publishing Corporation.

References: Weiten, W. (2010). Psychology: Themes and Variations, Eighth Edition. Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Shaffer, D.R., & Kipp, K. (2010). Developmental Psychology: Childhood and Adolescence Eighth Edition. Wadsworth. Cengage Learning. Shettleworth, S.J. (2010). Cognition, Evolution, and Behavior Second Edition. New York. Oxford University Press. McGilly, K. (editor). (1998). Classroom Lessons: Integrating Cognitive Theory and Classroom Practise. Massachusetts. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Eysneck, M.W. (2001). Principles of Cognitive Psychology Second Edition. Philadelphia. Psychology Press Ltd. Valsiner, J. & Voss, H. (editors). (1996). The Structure of Learning Processes. New Jersey. Ablex Publishing Corporation.